GIFT   OF 


JH4 


o 


TWENTIETH  CENTURY  TEXT-BOOKS 


CLASSICAL    SECTION 

EDITED    BY 

JOHN    HENRY   WRIGHT,        HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 
BERNADOTTE  PERRIN,          YALE  UNIVERSITY 
ANDREW  FLEMING  WEST,   PRINCETON  UNIVERSITY 


TWENTIETH   CENTURY   TEXT-BOOKS 


A    LATIN    GRAMMAR 

FOR    SCHOOLS 


BY 

ANDREW   FLEMING   WEST 

PROFESSOR   OF   LATIN    IN    PRINCETON    UNIVERSITY 


QVI   ERGO   DOCET  VITABIT  VERBA  OMNIA   QVAE  NON  DOCENT 

RABANUS  MAURUS 


NEW     YORK 

D.     APPLETON     AND     COMPANY 
1902 


COPYRIGHT,  1902 
BY   D.    APPLETON  AND  COMPANY 


Published  April,  1902 


FILIOLO  MEO 
AMATISSIMO 
AMANTISSIMO 


411392 


PREFACE 

THIS  book  is  planned  to  give  as  much  grammar  as  is 
serviceable  in  the  school  study  of  Latin.  If  Latin  grammar 
is  to  be  understood  and  relished  by  boys,  it  must  be  con- 
fined to  the  most  necessary  facts,  and  these  must  be  pre- 
sented in  a  clear  and  pleasing  way.  Ut  intelligamur  in- 
standum  est,  ' '  insist  on  being  understood, ' '  was  the  maxim 
of  a  very  great  teacher,  and  should  be  the  supreme  rule  in 
presenting  the  elements  of  any  subject.  Living  directness 
of  statement,  even  at  the  risk  of  missing  the  finer  shadings, 
is  better  than  inanimate  precision.  A  sketch  in  outline  con- 
tains less,  but  tells  the  beginner  far  more  than  an  elabo- 
rated picture  does. 

Scientific  Latin  grammar  is  not  for  boys,  but  for  men. 
The  best  that  can  be  done  for  a  boy  is  to  acquaint  him 
surely  with  the  facts  of  first  value  for  him — the  facts  he  can 
use  in  reading  his  school  authors.  This  is  enough ;  for  the 
authors  he  is  to  read  represent  the  best  period  of  Latin  and 
serve  to  introduce  him  to  the  literature  generally.  The 
object  is  not  to  make  grammarians  or  Latinists,  but  to 
educate  the  boy — to  train  his  taste  and  judgment  in  the 
field  of  language  and  literature  by  means  of  one  of  the  most 
powerful  instruments  that  can  be  used. 

Latin  grammar  has  been  making  and  unmaking  for  two 
thousand  years.  Great  grammarians  have  searched  every 
nook  and  corner  of  the  subject.  Most  of  the  best  (and  worst) 
things  have  been  said.  Accordingly,  while  an  elementary 
grammar  offers  opportunities  for  improved  restatement,  it 
affords  little  chance  to  write  with  originality  without  writing 
fiction.  In  issuing  this  book  I  wish  to  acknowledge  unre- 
servedly the  abundant  help  received  from  leading  writers, 

vii 


viii  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

American,  English,  and  German,  and  especially  from  those 
who  have  done  so  much  in  our  own  land  to  clarify  the 
school  grammars.  The  penetrating  researches  of  Hale,  the 
pure  brightness  of  Lane's  renderings,  the  lucid  order  of 
Gildersleeve,  the  exactness  of  Lodge,  the  mastery  of  sum- 
mary statement  in  Bennett,  the  steady  good  sense  in  Hark- 
ness,  and  the  critical  carefulness  of  Allen  and  Greenough's 
grammar — all  these,  I  hope,  have  in  some  degree  influenced 
this  little  manual,  which  is  under  many  obligations  to  them. 
The  Schmalz-Wagener  and  Ellendt-Seyifert  grammars,  as 
well  as  other  German  school  editions,  have  likewise  been 
constantly  useful  in  suggestion.  The  fundamental  studies 
of  the  masters  in  scientific  grammar,  upon  which  all  our 
school  grammars  rest,  have  also  been  consulted  at  need  again 
and  again.  I  must  mention  in  addition  the  very  valuable 
help  given  by  my  colleagues,  Professor  Westcott  and  Dr. 
Charles  Alexander  Robinson,  in  solving  many  difficulties 
and  in  reading  the  proofs.  Acknowledgment  of  friendly 
aid  is  also  due  to  my  fellow-editors  in  this  series. 

Puerulus  mindbit  eos  is  an  old  word  of  prophecy,  where- 
unto  writers  of  school-books  will  "  do  well  that  they  take 
heed,  as  unto  a  light  shining  in  a  dark  place."  Thus 
warned,  I  have  tried  to  keep  in  ever-present  view  the  needs 
of  the  boys  and  girls  for  whom  this  book  has  been  made. 
If  it  shall  lead  them,  without  too  many  scratches,  through 
what  Alcuin  long  ago  so  picturesquely  styled  ' '  the  thorny 
thickets  of  grammatical  density,"  it  will  have  been  well 
worth  the  writing. 

ANDREW  F.  WEST. 

PRINCETON  UNIVERSITY. 


CONTENTS 

(The  numbers  refer  to  sections) 
INTRODUCTORY 1-12 

FIEST   PAKT :    SOUNDS  .       .       .     13-40 

I  THE  ALPHABET  :  Letters,  13-15 ;  Vowels  and  Diphthongs,  16 ; 

Consonants,  17-25  ;  Pronunciation,  26-29. 

II  SYLLABLES:  Definition,  30;    Division,  31;   Quantity,  32-37; 
Accent,  38-40. 

SECOND   PAET:    WOEDS.       .       .    41-276 

A.  THE  PARTS  OF  SPEECH,  41-46. 

I  NOUNS:  Kinds,  47,  48;   Genders,  49-52;  Numbers,  53; 

Cases,  54,  55. 

Declensions,    56-58;    First,    59-63;    Second,    64-72; 
Third,  73-92 ;  Fourth,  93-96 ;  Fifth,  97,  98 ;  Stems 
and  Endings  of  all  Declensions,  99. 
Indeclinable,  Defective  and  Variable  Nouns,  100-106. 
II  ADJECTIVES:  Declensions,  107;  First  and  Second,  108- 

112;  Third,  113-117;  Indeclinable,  118. 
Comparison,  119-129;  Numerals,  130-135. 

III  PRONOUNS  :  Kinds,  136 ;  Personal,  137 ;  Reflexive,  138 ; 

Possessive,  139,  140;  Demonstrative,  141-145;  In- 
tensive, 146;  Relative,  147;  Interrogative,  148;  In- 
definite, 149,  150 ;  Pronominal  and  Correlative  Ad- 
jectives, 151,  152  ;  Tables,  153,  154. 

IV  VERBS  :  Definitions,  155-157 ;  Voices,  158 ;  Moods,  159 ; 

Tenses,  160,  161 ;  Numbers,  162 ;  Persons,  163. 
Conjugation,  164;  Stems,  165,  166;  Tense  and  Mood 
Signs,  167 ;  Personal  Endings,  168,  169. 


X  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

The  Four  Regular  Conjugations,  170,  171 ;  Synopsis, 
172;  Conjugation  of  sum,  173;  First  Conjugation, 
174,  175;  Second  Conjugation,  176,  177;  Third  Con- 
jugation, 178,  179;  Fourth  Conjugation,  180,  181; 
Verbs  in  -io,  182-184;  Deponent,  185,  186;  Semi- 
Deponent,  187;  Periphrastic,  188;  Peculiar  Forms, 
189-192. 

Changes  of  Stem,  193-197;  Lists  of  Verbs  giving 
Principal  Parts,  198-220. 

Irregular  Verbs,  221-229 ;  Defective,  230-232 ;  Imper- 
sonal, 233. 

THE  PARTICLES,  234 

V  ADVERBS:   Formation,  235-237;  Comparison,  238-239; 

Classes,  240. 

VI  PREPOSITIONS,  241-246. 

VII  CONJUNCTIONS:  Kinds,  247;  Coordinate,  248-253;  Sub- 
ordinate, 254-261. 
VIII  INTERJECTIONS,  262. 

B.  THE  FORMATION  OF  WORDS,  263 :  Derivatives,  264-273 ;  Com- 
pounds, 274-276. 


THIED  PAET :    SENTENCES    .      .  277-663 

I  THE  SENTENCE  IN  GENERAL:  Definitions,  277,  278;  Ways  of 
Stating,  279;  Direct  Questions,  280-283;  Kinds  of  Sen- 
tences, 284-287 ;  How  Words  are  Combined,  288 ;  Rules  for 
Combining,  289-304. 

II  USES  OF  NOUNS:  The  Cases,  305;  Nominative,  306;  Voca- 
tive, 307 ;  Accusative,  308-325 ;  Dative,  326-345 ;  Genitive, 
346-371 ;  Ablative,  372-407. 

III  USES  OF  ADJECTIVES:  408-418. 

IV  USES  OF  PRONOUNS:  419-439. 
V   USES  OF  VERBS:  440-655. 

THE  FINITE  VERB  :  440-620 

(I)  VOICE,  PERSON,  NUMBER,  442. 

(II)  TENSES,  443,  444;  of  Indicative,  445-460;  of  Subjunc- 

tive :  in  Leading  Clauses,  461 ;  in  Subordinate 
Clauses  (Sequence  of  Tenses),  462-472 ;  of  Impera- 
tive, 473-475. 


CONTENTS  xi 

(III)  MOODS  :  476. 

A.  In  Principal  Clauses,  477-496. 

Indicative,  477-479. 

Subjunctive,  480;  Volitive,  481-483;  Optative,  484; 
Conditional,  485-490 ;  with  Negatives,  491,  492 ;  in 
Questions,  493  ;  with  Indefinite  Second  Person,  494. 

Imperative,  495,  496. 

B.  In  Subordinate  Clauses,  497-620. 

I  Uses  of  Subordinate  Clauses,  498-501. 

1.  As  Nouns  (Substantive  Clauses),  498,  499. 

2.  As  Adjectives  (Attributive  Clauses),  500. 

3.  As  Adverbs  (Adverbial  Clauses),  501. 
II  Forms  of  Subordinate  Clauses,  502-620. 

1.  Introduced  by  a  Conjunction  (Conjunctional 

Clauses),  503-579 ;  Transition  to  Conjunc- 
tional Clauses,  504,  505 ;  Clauses  of  Purpose, 
506-518 ;  Clauses  of  Result,  519-528 ;  Clauses 
of  Time,  529-540 ;  Clauses  of  Cause,  541-549 ; 
Clauses  of  Condition,  550-565 ;  THE  CONDI- 
TIONAL SENTENCE,  551-562 ;  Clauses  of  Com- 
parison, 566-568 ;  Clauses  of  Concession,  569- 
572 ;  Negative  Clauses  with  quin,  573-579. 

2.  Introduced  by  a  Relative  (Relative  Clauses), 

580-589. 

3.  Introduced  by  an  Interrogative  (Indirect  Ques- 

tions), 590-595. 
(SYNOPSIS  OF  MOODS,  596) 

4.  Governed  by  Verbs  of  Saying  or  Thinking  (IN- 

DIRECT DISCOURSE):  597-619. 

Subjunctive  by  Attraction,  620. 
VERBAL  NOUNS  AND  ADJECTIVES:  621-655 
Infinitive,  622-636 ;  Gerund  and  Gerundive,  637-644 ; 

Participle,  645-652 ;  Supine,  653-655. 
VI  USES  OF  ADVERBS:  656-663. 
APPENDIX:  664-740. 

Order  of  Words :  Grammatical,  664-672 ;  Rhetorical,  673-677. 
Prosody,  678-717 :  Quantity  of  Syllables,  682-695 ;  Verse  and 

Metre,  696-717. 

Roman  Calendar,  Roman  Names,  Abbreviations,  718-728. 
English  Pronunciation  of  Latin,  729-739. 
Figures  of  Speech,  740. 

INDEX  OF  LATIN  WORDS 741 

INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS  ,    742 


LATIN    GRAMMAR 


INTRODUCTORY 

LANGUAGE 

1  If  we  are  to  be  able  to  tell  what  we  think  about  anything,  we 
must  know  how  to  use  some  kind  of  Language.     Every  lan- 
guage is  made  up  of  Signs.    A  sign  is  that  by  which  anything 
is  made  known.     Thus,  a  red  light  on  a  railway  is  a  sign  of 
danger,  and  a  white  light  is  a  sign  of  safety.     The  sound  of 
the  sunset  gun  at  a  fort  is  a  sign  to  lower  the  flag.     Other 
well-known  signs  or  signals  are  the  bugle-calls  in  an  army,  and 
the  waving  of  flags  or  flashing  of  lights  by  ships  passing  at  sea. 

2  Then  there  are  signs  that  come  nearer  to  what  we  commonly 
mean  when  we  speak  of  language  ;  that  is,  language  in  the 
sense  of  speech.     Such  are  the  movements  of  fingers  made 
by  the  deaf  and  dumb,  the  clicks  of  the  key  in  a  telegraph- 
office,  the  picture-writing  of  American  Indians,  and  the  fig- 
ures of  a  sum  in  arithmetic.     For  in  these  last  cases  each 
sign  usually  means  either  some  letter  of  the  alphabet,  as  in 
the  movements  of  fingers  and  the  clicks  of  the  telegraph,  or 
some  word,  as  in  the  Indian  picture-writing  and  the  figures 
of  a  sum  in  arithmetic. 

3  But  for  all  men  who  are  able  to  talk,  the  one  common  and 
most  useful  kind  of  language  is  Speech,  the  language  of 
words  spoken  and  written.     Spoken  words  last  only  while 
being  spoken  or  remembered.     Written  words  last  longer, 
and  may  last  for  ages,  if  copies  are  correctly  made  and  kept 

l  1 


RAMMAR 

for  reading.     By  this  means  we  may  learn  what  men  said 
and  thought  thousands  of  years  ago. 

4  The  two  ways  of  learning  a  language  are  by  speaking  and 
reading.      Our    own    language,    or    mother-tongue,   is   first 
learned  by  speaking  and  afterward  by  reading.     Other  lan- 
guages now  spoken  in  the  world  are  also  best  learned  by 
speaking,  followed  by  reading.     Ancient  languages,  now  no 
longer  spoken,  or  but  little  spoken,  are  most  usefully  learned 
by  reading.     For  there  is  no  great  need  of  learning  to  speak 
them  in  order  to  talk  with  others,  and  they  are  best  worth 
learning  in  order  to  read,  and  so  to  understand,  what  has  been 
preserved  to  us  in  the  ancient  writings,  or  books.  . 

GRAMMAR 

5  Grammar  is  the  study  which  explains  speech  or  language. 
Speech  is  made  up  of  words.     Spoken  words  are  made  up  of 
sounds  and  written  words  of  letters,  which  are  nothing  else 
than  written  sounds.     Then  words  may  be  combined  with 
other  words  to  make  sentences.     There  are  thus  three  divi- 
sions in  which  we  may  study  the  words  which  make  up  a 
language : 

1.  The  Sounds  or  letters  of  which  words  are  made 

(Sounds) ; 

2.  The  separate  Words  themselves  (Etymology) ; 

3.  The  combinations  of  words,  or  Sentences  (Syntax). 
These  are  the  three  Parts  of  Grammar. 

6  Words  are  of  different  kinds,  according  to  their  use  and 
meaning.     There  are,  first  of  all,  the  words  which  are  used 
to  name  things  or  persons.     They  are  called  Nouns.     Such 
are  eagle,  man,  John,  city,  thirst,  truth.     Then  there  are  the 
words  which  mean  doing  or  being.     They  are  called  Yerbs. 
Such  are  see,  write,  suffer,  come,  is.     Nouns  and  Yerbs  are 
the  two  most  important  kinds  of  words. 


INTRODUCTORY  3 

7  Then  there  are  the  words  which  describe  or  tell  about  Nouns. 
They  are  called  Adjectives.     Such  are  good,  swift,  large, 
many,  three.     Thus  we  say  good  'man,  swift  eagle,  three  cities. 
Next  come  the  Pronouns,  or  words  used  instead  of  Nouns. 
Such  are  he,  they,  who.     Thus  we  may  say  he  for  John. 

There  are  also  the  words  which  usually  describe  or  tell 
about  Yerbs.  They  are  called  Adverbs.  Sometimes  they 
describe  Adjectives  or  other  Adverbs.  Such  are  soon,  slowly, 
very.  Thus  we  may  say  come  soon,  write  slowly,  very  good. 

8  Besides  these  there  are  the  Prepositions,  little  words  placed 
before  Nouns  or  Pronouns,  and  often  used  to  bring  out  the 
idea  of  place  or  time  more  clearly.     Such  are  in,  from,  after. 
Thus  we  say  in  school,  after  dark,  seven  from  ten  ( =  seven 
taken  from  ten). 

There  are  also  Conjunctions,  or  joining  words,  such  as  and, 
but,  or.  Thus  we  say  hoys  and  girls,  poor  hut  proud,  sink 
or  swim. 

Last  of  all  are  the  Interjections  or  words  of  exclamation, 
such  as  oh  !  alas  !  halloo  ! 

9  These  eight  kinds  of  words  include  all  the  words  in  a  lan- 
guage.    They  are  called  the  Parts  of  Speech.     The  last  four, 
being  less  important  than  the  others,  are  called  Particles — 
"  little  parts  "  of  Speech. 

Parts  of  Speech 

I.  Nouns,  Adjectives,  Pronouns, 
II.  Verbs,  Adverbs, 
III.  Prepositions,  Conjunctions,  Interjections. 

THE   LATIN  LANGUAGE 

10  The  Latin  language  is  so  named  because  it  was  first  spoken 
by  the  ancient  Latin  tribe  which  inhabited  the  neighborhood 
of  Rome.  It  gradually  spread  until  it  became  the  principal 


4  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

language  of  the  Roman  Empire,  which  once  covered  the 
whole  western  civilized  world.  It  lasted  as  a  spoken  lan- 
guage well  into  the  Middle  Ages,  and  as  the  written  language 
of  scholars  until  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
Some  books  are  still  written  in  Latin,  and  some  scholars  speak 
it.  It  is  also  used  in  our  time  as  the  language  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church. 

11  It  is  the  parent  of  the  modern  languages  known  as  Romance 
languages — such  as  French,  Spanish,  and  Italian.     One-half 
of  all  our  English  words  are  borrowed  from  foreign  languages, 
and  four-fifths  of  these  borrowed  words  come  either  directly 
or  in  a  roundabout  way  from  the  Latin. 

12  A  knowledge  of  Latin  is  not  only  a  great  help  in  understand- 
ing our  own  mother-tongue  and  other  modern  languages,  but 
it  also  enables  us  to  read  the  old  Latin  books,  especially  the 
so-called  classical  books,  which  are  models  of  fine  style,  and 
contain  treasures  of  information  about  the  life,  thought,  and 
deeds  of  the  ancient  world.     We  may  thus  almost  hear  the 
great  Romans  as  they  tell  their  own  story  in  their  own  words. 


FIRST  PART:    SOUNDS 


THE   ALPHABET 

13  The  Latin  alphabet  is  the  same  as  the  English, 
except  that  W  is  missing. 

The  Romans  wrote  their  books  in  capital  letters.  The 
small  letters  came  into  use  early  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  at 
the  invention  of  printing,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  were  taken 
as  models  for  the  Roman  types.  Latin  books,  as  well  as  most 
modern  books  and  newspapers,  are  printed  in  Roman  type. 

14  K  is  rarely  used. 

Y  and  Z  were  brought  into  Latin  from  Greek  in  the  time  of 
Cicero. 

15  J  as  the  consonantal  form  of  I  and  U  as  the  vowel  form  of 
V   were  not  invented  until  the  Middle  Ages.     Although  J 
and  U  were  not  used  by  the  Romans,  it  is  convenient  to  retain 
them  in  order  to  make  clear  at  the  start  the  real  difference  in 
sound  between  J  and  I,  U  and  V. 

VOWELS  AND  DIPHTHONGS 

16  Six  letters  are  vowels,   a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y.     There 
are  these  six  diphthongs  :  ae,  oe,  au,  eu,  ei,  ui. 

However,  eu,  ei,  ui  are  often  sounded  separately — not  as 
diphthongs.  Other  pairs  of  vowels  are  not  diphthongs ;  that 
is,  they  are  rarely  or  never  sounded  together  as  one.  Thus 
iu,  ou,  ie,  ea,  and  so  on,  are  not  diphthongs. 


6 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


They  are 


ph 
th 
ch 


CONSONANTS 

17  All  the  other  letters  are  consonants, 
divided  into  six  classes : 

Mutes,  Liquids,  Nasals,  Spirants,  Semivowels, 
Double  Consonants. 

18  The  Mutes  (stopped  sounds)  are  divided  into 

Labials  (lip  sounds)  p  b 

Dentals  (tooth  sounds)  t  d 

Gutturals  (throat  sounds)  c,  k,  q  g 

19  They  are  also  divided  into  the 

Smooth  or  Voiceless  p,  t,  c,  k,  q 

Middle  or  Voiced  b,  d,  g 

Rough  or  Aspirate  ph,  th,  ch 

A  voiceless  mute  is  sounded  without  vibration,  and  a  voiced 
mute  with  vibration  of  the  vocal  cords.  An  aspirate  is  a 
voiceless  mute  with  the  breathing  h  added. 

20  The  sound  of  ph   is  not  the  same  as  /.     The  aspirates,  ph, 
th,  ch,  are  to  be  sounded  as  in  up-hill,  cart-horse,  inkhorn. 

Table  of  Mutes 


21 


Smooth  or  Voiceless 

Middle  or  Voiced 

Rough  or  Aspirate 

Labials 
Dentals 

P 
t 

b 
d 

ph 
th 

Gutturals 

c,  k,  q 

S 

ch 

22  The  Liquids  (flowing  sounds)  are    1,  r.     The  Nasals  (nose 
sounds)  are  m,  n.     When  followed  by  a  guttural,  n  has  the 
sound  of  n  in  fling.    Thus  lingua,  tongue,  is  sounded  ling-gwa. 

23  The  Spirants  (breathings)  are  f,  s,  h. 

24  The  Consonants  j  (sounded  like  y)  and  v  (sounded  like  w) 
are  called  Semivowels. 


THE  ALPHABET  7 

25  There  are  two  Double  Consonants,  x  and  z.     x  is  equal  to 
cs  or  gs,  and  z  is  probably  equal  to  ds. 

PRONUNCIATION 

26  The  sounds  of  the  letters,  according  to  the  pro- 
nunciation  of  the   ancient  Romans,  are  very 
nearly  as  follows : 

I.   VOWELS 

The  mark  ~  over  a  vowel  means  it  is  long,  and  w  that  it  is 
short.  In  this  grammar  the  short  vowels  are  not  marked,  ex- 
cept in  a  few  special  cases.  The  pupil  should  carefully  remem- 
ber that  every  unmarked  vowel  is  short. 

a  as  in  the  last  a  of        a  as  in  the  first  a  of 

aha.  aM. 

e  as  in  whey.  e  as  in  whet. 

1  as  in  pique.  i  as  in  pick. 

6  as  in  omen.  6  as  in  omit. 

u  as  oo  in  pool.  u  as  in  put. 

y,   y,    like    the  Ger- 
man u. 

27  Sometimes    u    is    sounded    as    w.     This    always    occurs    in 
qu  and    in   ngu   before    a   vowel.     Thus    qul  —  kivee  and 
lingua  =  ling-gwa  (see  22).     It  also   occurs  in   su  in   the 
words  suavis,  suadeo,  suesco. 

28  Diphthongs 

ae  like  ai  in  aisle.  eu  like  eu  in  feud. 

oe  like  oi  in  oil.  ei  like  ei  in  feint. 

au  like  ow  in  owl.  ui  like  we. 


8  LATIN   GKAMMAR 

II.   CONSONANTS 

29  Consonants    are   sounded    as    in    English,    ex- 
cept that 

b  before  s  or  t  =  p. 

c  is  always  like  k. 

g  is  always  as  in  get. 

j    is  always  like  y  in  yet. 

r   is  slightly  trilled. 

s   is  always  as  in  this,  never  as  in  has. 

t    is  always  as  in  notice,  never  as  in  notion. 

v  is  always  like  w. 

x  is  always  like  ks. 


SYLLABLES 

30  In  pronouncing  Latin  words  the  letters  are 
sounded  in  syllables.  A  syllable  is  a  separate 
vowel  or  diphthong,  or  a  vowel  or  diphthong 
sounded  with  one  or  more  consonants.  Thus 
e?  from,  et,  and,  haec,  this,  dum,  while,  are 
words  of  one  syllable  ;  Roma,  Rome,  aurum, 
gold,  are  words  of  two  syllables ;  Romanus, 
Roman,  and  folium,  leaf,  are  words  of  three 
syllables. 

A  word  has  as  many  syllables  as  it  contains 
separate  vowels  and  diphthongs. 


SYLLABLES  9 

31  In  dividing  words  into  syllables  : 

1.  One  consonant  between  two  vowels  must  go  with  the 
following  vowel.     Thus  Cae-sar,   Caesar,  a-xis,  axle. 

2.  Of  two  or  more  consonants  standing  together,  as  many  as 
may  begin  a  word  usually  go  with  the  following  vowel.    Thus 
ex-tra,  beyond,  ma-gnus,  great.    But  this  rule  is  not  always 
true,  for  the  division  of  syllables  is  as  yet  imperfectly  under- 
stood.    The  combinations  of  consonants  which  may  not  be- 
gin a  word  or  syllable  are : 

(1)  Repeated  Consonants,  as  mm,  tt.    Thus  mit-to,  send. 

(2)  A  Liquid  or  Nasal  (1,  m,  n,  r)  followed  by  a  conso- 

nant.    Thus  ul-mus,  elm,  cor-pus,  body,  am-bo, 
both. 

3.  Compound  words  divide  into  their  component  parts. 
Thus  ad-sum,  /  am  here,  red-I,  come  back. 

QUANTITY  OF  SYLLABLES 

32  A  syllable  is  long  either  by  nature  or  by  position. 

The  Quantity  of  a  syllable,  whether  long  or  short,  is  the 
time  taken  in  sounding  it.  A  long  syllable  is  said  to  have 
twice  the  time  of  a  short  one  (—  equals  ^^). 

33  I.  A  syllable  is  long  by  nature  if  it  contains  a 
long  vowel  or  a  diphthong. 

The  long  vowel  in  the  syllable  is  always  long  by  nature — 
not  by  position.  Simple  rules  can  not  be  given  for  determining 
all  the  vowels  that  are  long.  They  must  be  learned  by  prac- 
tice. In  this  grammar  all  long  vowels  are  marked.  See  26. 

It  is  important  to  notice  that 

1.  Diphthongs,  vowels  formed  from  diphthongs,  and  con- 
tracted vowels  are  long.    Thus  aurae,  inlquus  formed  from 
in  +  aequus,  cogo  contracted  from  co-ago. 

2.  A  vowel  before  j,  nf,  ns,  and  often  before  gn,  is  long. 
Thus  hujus,  infans,  mensa,  magnus. 


10  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

34  Most  words  of  one  syllable  are  long  by  nature.     Thus  pes. 
sol,  da,  tu,  qui,  si,  6s  (oris). 

But  the  following  are  short : 

Nouns:  vir,  lac,  mel,  fel,  cor,  os  (ossis). 

Pronouns :      quis,  quid,  .quod,  quot,  tot, 

is,  id. 
Verb  forms:  dat,  stat,  it,  scit,  fer,  fac. 

Also  es  from  sum,  but  es  from  edo. 
Particles:       ab,  ad,  an,  at,  sat,  et,  ut, 

ob,  sub,  sed,  bis,  cis,  cum,  dum, 

in,  nee,  per,  ter,  vel. 
Enclitics:       -que,  -ve,  -ce,  -te,  -pte,  -ne. 

35  II.  A  syllable  is  long  by  position  if  it  contains 
a  short  vowel  followed  by  two  or  more  con- 
sonants, or  by  a  double  consonant. 

Thus  the  syllable  mors,  containing  a  vowel  short  by  na- 
ture, is  long  by  position.  So  the  syllable  ab  is  short  by 
nature,  but  becomes  long  by  position  in  absolvo.  In  all 
such  cases  the  vowel  stays  short.  It  is  the  syllable,  never 
the  vowel,  which  is  long  by  position. 

It  is  important  to  remember  that  a  vowel  followed  by  nt  or 
nd  is  regularly  short,  as  amant,  amandus.  But  qumtus, 
nondum. 

The  breathing  h  is  not  to  be  counted  a  consonant  in  mak- 
ing position. 

36  III.  Almost  all  other  syllables  are  short. 

Thus  a  syllable  containing  a  short  vowel  followed  by 
another  vow^el,  by  h,  or  by  a  single  consonant,  is  short ;  as 
via,  traho,  amat 

The  most  important  exceptions  are 

1.  Some  words  taken  from  the  Greek,  as  aer,  Aeneas. 

2.  Genitives  in  -lus,  as  unlus.     But  utrtusque. 


ACCENT  11 

37  A  syllable  is  common  (long  or  short  at  will)  if 
it  contains  a  short  vowel  followed  by  a  mute 
and   1   or   r.     A   common    syllable   is  marked 
by  *.     Thus  te-ne-brae. 

Such  syllables  are  common  in  poetry  only.     In  prose  they 
are  short. 

ACCENT 

38  The  last  syllable  of  a  word  is  called  the  ultima, 
the  next  to  the  last  the  penult,  and  the  next 
before  the  penult  the  antepenult. 

39  Words  of  two  syllables  are  accented  on  the  pe- 
nult :  pa  ter,  ma  ter. 

40  Words  of  more  than  two  syllables  are  accented 
on  the  penult,  if  the  penult  is  long :   Ro  ma  nus, 
pu  e  ro  rum.     Otherwise  they  are  accented  on 
the  antepenult :  ta  bu  la,  ma  ri  ti  mus. 


SECOND   PART:    WORDS 


THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH 

41  Of  the  eight  Parts  of  Speech  in  Latin,  the  fol- 
lowing   five    change    their    form    to    express 
change  of  meaning  :  Nouns,  Adjectives,  Pro- 
nouns, Verbs,  Adverbs.    The  Prepositions,  Con- 
junctions, and  Interjections  do  not  so  change. 

42  There  are  three  kinds  of  change :  Declension, 
Comparison,  Conjugation. 

All  changes  of  form  may  be  included  under  the  word  In- 
flection, though  it  is  also  used  in  the  sense  of  Declension  only. 

43  Declension  is  the  simpler  kind  of  change.     It 
occurs   in    the   endings  of  Nouns,   Adjectives, 
and  Pronouns. 

44  Comparison  is  a  special  kind  of  change  used 
to  express  the  degree  of  Adjectives  and  Ad- 
verbs. 


45  Conjugation  is  the  more  complicated  kind  of 

12 


change.     It  occurs  in  Verbs. 


NOUNS  13 

46  Table  of  Inflection 

Nouns  have  Declension. 

Adjectives  have  Declension  and  Comparison. 

Pronouns  have  Declension. 

Verbs  have  Conjugation. 

Adverbs  have  Comparison. 

NOUNS 

KINDS  OF  NOUNS 

47  Nouns  are  divided  into  Concrete  and  Abstract. 
A    Concrete  noun    is  the  name   of  a    person, 
place,  or   thing :    homo,    man.      An   Abstract 
noun    is    the    name    of   a    quality  :    amicitia, 
friendship. 

48  Concrete  nouns  are  divided  into   Proper  and 
Common.     A  Proper  noun  is  the  name  of  some 
particular   person,    place,    or   thing :     Caesar, 
Caesar,    Tiberis,    the    Tiber.      All    others    are 
Common. 

GENDERS  OF  NOUNS 

49  There  are  three  Genders  :  Masculine,  Feminine, 
Neuter.     Gender  is   either  Natural  or  Gram- 
matical. 

50  The  rule  for  Natural  Gender  is : 

Names  of  males  are   Masculine ;    names  of 


14  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

females    are    Feminine.      Thus    pater,  father, 
Cicero,  Cicero-,    soror,  sister,  Juno,  Juno. 

51  The  rules  for  Grammatical  Gender  are  : 

1.  Names  of  rivers,  winds,  and  months  are 
Masculine :  Rhenus,  Rhine,  Eurus,  east  wind. 

2.  Most  names  of  countries,  islands,  towns, 
and  trees  are  Feminine  :   Corinthus,    Corinth, 
Aegyptus,   Egypt,  quercus,  oak. 

3.  Indeclinable  nouns  are  Neuter :  nihil,  noth- 
ing. 

4.  The  gender  of  other  nouns  is  shown  by  the 
ending  of  the  Nominative  Singular.     See  59,  64, 
88-90,  93,  97. 

52  Some  nouns  have  two  grammatical   and   natural   genders — 
masculine  and  feminine.     Thus  parens,  parent,  comes,  com- 
panion.   They  are  said  to  have  Common  Gender.     Some  names 
of  animals  have  one  grammatical  and  the  two  natural  genders  : 
aquila,  f.,  eagle,  anser,  m.,  goose  or  gander.     They  are  called 
Epicenes. 

NUMBERS  OF  NOUNS 

53  There  are  two   Numbers,  the   Singular  mean- 
ing one,   and  the  Plural  meaning  more  than 
one.    Thus  arbor,  sing.,  tree,  arbores,  pi.,  trees. 

CASES  OF  NOUNS 

54  Nouns  change  their  endings  to  express  change  in 
meaning.     Thus  porta,  a  gate,  portae,  of  agate. 

The  body  of  the  word  is  called  the  Stem,  to  which  is  at- 
tached the  Ending. 


NOUNS 


15 


The  Ending  is  properly  the  part  attached  to  the  last  let- 
ter of  the  Stem.  In  porta-s  the  ending  is  attached  without 
change  and  in  portae  (for  old  porta-I)  with  change.  Some 
cases  have  no  Ending.  Oftentimes  the  last  letter  or  letters  of 
the  stem  are  weakened,  otherwise  altered,  or  lost ;  as  in  the 
Nominatives  porta,  gate,  from  the  older  stem  porta-,  puer, 
boy,  from  puero-,  leo,  lion,  from  Icon-,  virgo,  maiden,  from 
virgin-.  The  changes  made  in  forming  the  Cases  are  too  com- 
plicated for  a  beginner  in  grammar.  For  convenience,  there- 
fore, the  changeable  part  at  the  end  of  a  noun  is  allowed  to 
stand  as  the  Ending. 

55  Such  changes  of  form  are  called  Cases.     There 
are  six  Cases,  both  in  the  Singular  and  in  the 

Plural. 

Table  of  Cases 


Name  of  Case 

Answers  the  Questions 

Principal  Use 

1.  Nominative 
2.  Genitive 

3.  Dative 
4.  Accusative 
5    Vocative 

What?  who? 
Of  what?  whose? 

To,  for  what  or  whom  ? 
What?  whom? 

Subject 
In  defining  nouns  and 
adjectives 
Indirect  object 
Direct  object 
Direct  address 

6.  Ablative 

With,  from,  in,  by  what 
or  whom  ? 

Like  an  adverb 

Another  Case,  the  Locative,  denoting  the  place  where,  sur- 
vives in  names  of  towns  and  in  a  few  other  words :  Romae, 
at  Rome,  doml,  at  home. 


DECLENSIONS  OF  NOUNS 

56  The  Cases  taken  together  make  up  the  De- 
clension of  a  noun.     There  are  five  different 


16 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


57 


Declensions.  They  may  be  known  apart  by 
the  last  letter  of  the  Stem  or  by  the  Genitive 
Ending.  Thus  the  Stem  of  porta  ends  in  a, 
and  the  Ending  of  portae,  the  Genitive  Singu- 
lar, is  ae. 

Table  of  Declensions 


Declension 

Last  Letter  of  Stem 

Genitive  Ending 

First 

»  (a) 

-ae 

Second 

6 

-i 

Third 

t  or  a  consonant 

-is 

Fourth 

W 

11 

-us 

Fifth 

e 

-e~I 

58  The  following  Cases  have  the  same  Ending : 

1.  Nominative  and  Vocative,  except  in  the  Singular  of  the 
Second  Declension  when  the  Nominative  ends  in  -us. 

2.  Nominative,  Accusative,  and  Vocative  of  Neuter  nouns. 
In  the  Plural  these  end  in  -a. 

3.  Nominative  and  Accusative  Plural  of  all  nouns  in  the 
Third,  Fourth,  and  Fifth  Declensions. 

4.  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural. 


FIRST  DECLENSION 

59  The  Stem  originally  ended  in  a,  later  in  a. 

Nouns  of  the  First  Declension  have  the  Nomi- 
native Singular  ending  in  -a,  and  are  of  the 
Feminine  Gender.  Thev  are  declined  as  fol- 

«/ 

lows : 


NOUNS 


17 


mensa  (Stem  mensa-),  /.,  table 


Case 

Meaning 

Ending 

SING. 

Nom. 

mensa 

a  table 

-a 

Gen. 

mensae 

of  a  table 

-ae 

Dat. 

mensae 

to  or  for  a  table 

-ae 

Ace. 

rnensam 

a  table 

-am 

Voc. 

mensa 

0  table! 

-a 

Abl. 

mensa 

with,  from,  in,  by  a  table 

-a 

PLURAL 

Nom. 

mensae 

tables 

-ae 

Gen. 

mensarum 

of  tables 

-arum 

Dat. 

mensls 

to  or  for  tables 

-Is 

Ace. 

mensas 

tables 

-as 

Voc. 

mensae 

0  tables  ! 

-ae 

Abl. 

mensls 

with,  from,  in,  by  tables 

-Is 

Latin  has  no  Article :   mensa,  table,  a  table,  the  table. 

60  A  few  nouns  in  -a  are  Masculine,  as  nauta,  sailor,  scriba, 
clerk.     See  50. 

61  The  Locative  Singular  ends  in  -ae,  the  Locative  Plural  in  -is ; 
Romae,  at  Rome,  Athenis,  at  Athens. 

62  In  a  few  nouns  the  old  Genitive  Singular  in  -ai,  -as  some- 
times  occurs;  aulal,  of  the  hall,  familias,  of  the  family. 

A  few  nouns  have  the  Genitive  Plural  in  -um,  not  in 
-arum.  Thus  amphora,  ajar,  amphorum,  of  jars,  caeli- 
cola,  a  celestial,  caelicolum,  of  celestials. 

The  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural  of  dea,  goddess,  filia, 
daughter,  end  in  -abus. 

GREEK  NOUNS 

63  Greek  nouns  ending  in  -e  are  Feminine.     Those  ending  in 
-as  or  -es  are  Masculine.    In  the  Plural  they  are  declined 
like  mensa,  and  in  the  Singular  as  follows  : 


18 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


epitome,  f  .,  epitome 

Aeneas,  m.,  Aeneas 

Anchises,  m.,  Anchises 

Nom. 

epitome 

Aeneas 

Anchises 

Gen. 

epitomes 

Aeneae 

Anchlsae 

Dat. 

epitomae 

Aeneae 

Anchisae 

Ace. 

epitomen 

Aenean  (-am) 

Anchisen 

Voc. 

epitome 

Aenea  (-a) 

Anchlse  (-a,  -a) 

Abl. 

epitome 

Aenea 

Anchise  (-a) 

SECOND  DECLENSION 

64  The  Stem  ends  in  o,  which  is  often  absorbed 
in  the  case-endings  or  lost  altogether.  Nouns 
of  the  Second  Declension  ending  in  -us,  -er,  -ir 
are  Masculine,  those  in  -um  are  Neuter. 


65 


Nouns  in  -us  and  -um 


hortus,  m.,  garden 
Stem  horto- 

Ending 

SING. 

Nom. 

hortus 

-us 

Gen. 

hortl 

-I 

Dat. 

horto 

-0 

Ace. 

hortum 

-um 

Voc. 

horte 

-e 

Abl. 

horto 

-o 

PLURAL 

Nom. 

hortl 

-I 

Gen. 

hortorum 

-orum 

Dat. 

hortis 

-Is 

Ace. 

hortos 

-OS 

Voc. 

hortl 

-1 

Abl. 

hortis 

-Is 

bellum,  n.,  war 
Stem  bello- 

Ending 

bellum 

-um 

belli 

-I 

bello 

-6 

bellum 

-um 

bellum 

-um 

bello 

-0 

bell* 

-a 

bellorum 

-orum 

bellis 

-Is 

bella 

-a 

bella 

-a 

bellis 

-Is 

NOUNS 


19 


66 


Nouns  in  -er  and  -ir 


ager,  m.,  field 
Stem  agro- 

puer,  m.,  boy 
Stem  puero- 

vir,  m.,  man 
Stem  viro- 

Ending 

S.ING. 

Nom. 

ager 

puer 

vir 

none 

Gen. 

agri 

pueii 

viri 

-I 

Dat. 

agro 

puero 

viro 

-o 

Ace. 

agrum 

puerum 

virum 

-um 

Voc. 

ager 

puer 

vir 

none 

Abl. 

agro 

puero 

viro 

-0 

PLURAL 

Nora. 

agri 

pueii 

viri 

-I 

Gen. 

agrorum 

puerorum 

virorum 

-orum 

Dat. 

agris 

puerls 

virls 

-is 

Ace. 

agros 

pueros 

viros 

-OS 

Voc. 

agri 

puerl 

viri 

-1 

Abl. 

agris 

puerls 

virls 

-Is 

67  Most  nouns  in  -er  are  declined  like  ager,  developing  an  e 
before  the  r  in  the  Nominative  and  Vocative  Singular.     But 
decline  gener,  son-in-law,  socer,  father-in-law,  llberl,  chil- 
dren, vesper,  evening,  like  puer.     Note  that  liber,  book, 
is  like  ager. 

68  Some  nouns  in  -us  are  Feminine,  according  to  the  general 
rules  in  50  and  51.     Thus  pirus,  f.,  pear-tree. 

Also  these  five :  alvus,  lelly,  carbasus,  linen,  colus,  dis- 
taff (94),  humus,  ground,  vannus,  fan. 

Three  in  -us  are  Neuter :  pelagus,  sea,  virus,  poison, 
vulgus,  crowd. 

69  The  Locative  Singular  ends  in  -I,  the  Locative  Plural  in  -Is ; 
doml,  at  home,  Argis,  at  Argos. 

Nouns  in  -ius  and  -ium  have  the  Genitive  Singular  in  -I 
or  -ii,  keeping  the  accent  on  the  same  syllable  as  in  the  Nomi- 
native. Thus  ingenium,  disposition,  has  ingenil  or  ingenl. 


20 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


70  But  Proper  nouns  in  -ius  have  both  the  Genitive  and  Voca- 
tive Singular  in  -I :  Vergilius,  Virgil,  Vergili,  of  Virgil  or 
0  Virgil.  Notice  that  the  accent  in  these  Genitives  and 
Vocatives  is  always  on  the  penult. 

The  Vocative  Singular  of  filius  son,  is  fill, 
deus,  god,  has  no  Vocative  Singular.    The  Plural  is  as  follows : 


71 


Nom. 

del,  dl 

Gen. 

deorum,  deum 

Dat. 

dels,  dig 

Ace. 

deos 

Voc. 

del,  dl 

Abl. 

dels,  dls 

GREEK  NOUNS 

72  Greek  nouns  in  -os,  -os  are  Masculine  or  Feminine.  Those 
in  -on  are  Neuter.  In  the  Plural  most  of  them  are  declined 
like  hortus,  if  Masculine  or  Feminine,  and  like  bellum,  if 
Neuter.  In  the  Singular  they  are  declined  as  follows  : 


Delos,  f.,  Delos 

Androgeos,  m.,  Androgeos 

Nom. 

Delos 

Androgeos 

Gen. 

Deli 

Androgeo,  -I 

Dat. 

Delo 

Androgeo 

Ace. 

Delum,  -on 

Androgeo,  -on 

Voc. 

Dele 

Androgeos 

Abl. 

Delo 

Androgeo 

Ilion,  n.,  Troy 

mythos,  m.,  fable 

Nom. 

Dion 

mvthos 

Gen. 

Tlii 

myth! 

Dat. 

Ilio 

mytho 

Ace. 

Ilion 

mython 

Voc. 

Ilion 

my  the 

Abl. 

Ilio 

mytho 

NOUNS 


21 


THIRD  DECLENSION 

73  The  Stem  ends  in  -i  or  a  consonant,  and  the 
nouns  are   divided  according  to  their  Stems 
into  four  classes,  as  follows  : 

A.  Consonant  Stems.     C.  Mixed  Stems. 

B.  i-  Stems.  D.  Rare  and  Irregular. 

74  The  Nominative  Singular  ends  in  one  of  the  following  letters : 

-a,  -e,  -I,  -6,  -y, 
-c,  -1,  -n,  -r,  -s,  -t,  -x. 

All  these  may  be  remembered  by  the  words  irons  exactly. 

A.  CONSONANT  STEMS 

75  The  Consonant  Stems  end  in  a  Mute,  Liquid, 
Nasal,  or  Spirant.     See  17.     The  Mute  Stems 
end  in  a  Labial,  Dental,  or  Guttural.     See  18. 

I.  MUTE  STEMS 

76  1.  Stems  ending  in  a  Labial :  b  or  p 


trabs,  f.,  beam 
Stem  trab- 

princeps,  m.,  chief 
Stem  princip- 

Ending 

SING. 
Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Voc. 
Abl. 

trabs 
trabis 
trabi 
trabem 

trabs 
trabe 

prmceps 
prmcipis 
prlncipi 
prmcipein 
princeps 
prmcipe 

-s 
-is 
-I 

-em 

-s 
-e 

PLURAL 
Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Voc. 
Abl. 

trabes 
trabum 
trabibus 
trabes 
trabes 
trabibus 

prmcipes 
principnm 
prlncipibus 
principes 
priii  cipes 
prlncipibus 

-es 
-um 
-ibus 

-es 
-es 
-ibiis 

22 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


77 


Notice  that  the  i  in  the  last  syllable  of  the  Stem  princip- 
is  changed  to  e  in  the  Nominative  and  Vocative  Singular. 
This  usually  occurs  in  every  kind  of  consonant  stem  of  two 
syllables  containing  i  in  the  last  syllable. 

2.  Stems  ending  in  a  Dental :  d  or  t 


lapis,  m.,  stone 
Stem  lapid- 

miles,  m.,  soldier 
Stem  milit- 

aetas,  f.,  age 
Stem  aetat- 

SING. 
Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
^Voc. 
Abl. 

lapis 
lapidis 
lapidl 
lapidem 
lapis 
'  lapide 

miles 
militis 
militl 
militem 
miles 
milite 

aetas 
aetatis 
aetatl 
aetatem 
aetas 
aetate 

PLURAL 
Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Voc. 
Abl. 

lapides 
lapidum 
lapidibus 
lapides 
lapides 
lapidibus 

milites 
militum 

mllitibus 
milites 
milites 
mllitibus 

aetates 
aetatum 
aetatibus 
aetates 
aetates 
aetatibus 

78 


Notice  that  final  t  and  d  of  the  Stem  are  lost  before  -s. 
3.  Stems  ending  in  a  Guttural :  g  or  c 


rex,  m.,  king 
Stem  reg- 

radix,  f.,  root 
Stem  radlc- 

dux,  m.  and  f.,  leader 
Stem  duc- 

SING. 
Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Voc. 
Abl. 

rex 
regis 
regl 
regem 
rex 
rege 

radlx 
radicis 
radicl 
radicem 
radix 
radlce 

dux^ 
ducis 
duel 
ducem 
dux 
duce 

PLURAL 
Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Voc. 
Abl. 

reges 
regum 
regibus 

reges 
reges 
regibus 

radices 
radicum 
radicibus 
radices 
radices 
radicibus 

duces 
ducuni 
dncibns 

duces 
duces 
ducibus 

NOUNS 


23 


79 


Notice  that  final  g  and  c  of  the  Stem  combine  with  -s 
of  the  Ending  to  form  the  double  consonant  x.     See  25. 

II.  LIQUID  STEMS  ;  1  OR  r 


consul,  m.,  consul 
Stem  consul- 

victor,  m.,victor 
Stem  victor- 

aequor,  n.,  sea 
Stem  aequor- 

Ending 

SING. 
Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Voc. 
Abl. 

consul 
consulis 
consul! 
consulem 
consul 
consule 

victor 
victoris 
victor! 
victorem 
victor 
victore 

aequor 
aequoris 
aequorl 
aequor 
aequor 
aequore 

m.,  f. 

-is 
-I 
-em 

-e 

n. 

-77~ 
-i 

-e 

PLURAL 
Nora. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Voc. 
Abl. 

consules 
consulum 
consulibus 
consules 
consules 
consulibus 

victores 
victorum 
victoribus 
victores 
victores 
victoribus 

aequora 
aequorum 
aequoribus 
aequora 
aequora 
aequoribus 

-es 
-um 
-ibus 

-es 
-es 
-ibus 

-a 
-um 
-ibus 
-a 
-a 
-ibus 

80 


Notice  that  Liquid  Stems  form  the  Nominative  and  Voca- 
tive Singular  of  Masculine  and  Feminine  nouns  and  the 
Nominative,  Accusative,  and  Vocative  Singular  of  Neuter 
nouns  without  the  case-ending. 

III.  NASAL  STEMS  :  n 


leo.  m.,  lion 
Stem  leon- 

virg-o,  f.,  maiden 
Stem  virgin- 

nomen,  n.,  name 
Stem  nomin- 

SING. 
Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Voc. 
Abl. 

leo 
leonis 
leoni 
leonem 
leo 
leone 

virgo 
virginis 
virgin! 
virginem 
virgo 
virgine 

nomen 
nominis 
nomin! 
nomen 
nomen 
nomine 

PLURAL 
Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Voc. 
Abl. 

leones 
leonum 
leonibus 
leones 
leones 
leonibus 

virgines 
virginum 
virginibus 
virgines 
virgines 
virginibus 

nomina 
nominum 
nominibus 
nomina 
nomina 
nominibus 

LATIN  GRAMMAR 


/ 


Notice  that  Nasal  Stems  often  lose  final  n  in  the  Nominative 
and  Vocative  Singular.    Their  case-endings  are  the  same  as  for 
Liquid  Stems. 
81  IV.  SPIRANT  STEMS  :  S 


mos,  m.,  custom 
Stem  mos- 

honor,  m.,  honor 
Stem  honos- 

corpus,  n.,  body 
Stem  corpos- 

SING. 
Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Voc. 
Abl. 

mos 
moris 
morl 
more  ill 
mos 
more 

honor 
honoris 
honor! 
honor  em 
honor 
honore 

corpus 
corporis 
corporl 
corpus 
corpus 
corpore 

PLURAL 

Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Voc. 
Abl. 

mores 
morum 
moribus 

mores 
mores 
moribus 

honores 
honorum 
honoribus 
honores 
honores 
honoribus 

corpora 
corporum 
corporibus 
corpora 
corpora 
corporibus 

/ 


82 


Notice  that  the  final  s  of  Spirant  Stems  changes  to  r 
between  two  vowels,  and  becomes  r  in  the  Nominative  and 
Vocative  Singular  of  honor,  arbor,  clamor,  color,  dolor. 

B.  1-  STEMS 
I.  WITH  NOMINATIVE  IN  -is 


turris,  f.,  tower 
Stem  turri- 

Ignis,  m.,  fire 
Stem  igni- 

hostis,  m.  f.,/oe 
Stem  liosti- 

Ending 

SING. 
Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Voc. 
Abl. 

turris 
turris 
turri 
turrim,  -em 
turris 
turri,  -e 

Ignis 
Ignis 
igni 
ignem 
ignis 
igni,  -e 

hostis 
hostis 
hostl 
hostem 
hostis 
hoste 

-is 
-is 
-I 
-im,  -em 
-is 
-I,  -e 

PLURAL 
Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 

Ace. 
Voc. 
Abl. 

turres 
turrinin 
turribus 

turris,  -es 
turres 
turribus 

Tgnes 
Tgniuiu 
Igni  bus 

Ignis,  -es 
Ignes 
ignibus 

hostes 
hostium 
hostibus 

hostis,  -f'S 

hostes 
hostibns 

-es 
iiiin 
-ibus 
-Is,  -es 
-§8 
-ibus 

NOUNS 


25 


83 


Notice  that  these  nouns  end  in  -is  in  the  Nominative 
Singular  and  in  -ium  in  the  Genitive  Plural.  The  original 
endings  -im,  -I  (in  Ablative),  and  -is  are  less  common  than 
the  later  -em,  -e,  -es.  The  Accusative  in  -im  and  Ablative 
in  -I  occur  in  the  following  important  nouns : 

Always  in  sitis,  thirst,  tussis,  cough,  and  names  of 
towns  and  rivers  in  -is  :  Neapolis, 
Naples,  Tiberis,  the  Tiber. 

Often  in  restis,  rope,  securis,  axe,  turris,  tower. 

Sometimes  in  clavis,  key,  messis,  harvest,  navis,  ship. 

There  are  many  nouns  in  -is,  some  of  them  formed  from 
Consonant  Stems.  In  the  following  nouns  in  -is  the  Geni- 
tive Plural  in  -um,  not  in  -ium,  occurs : 

Always  in  juvenis,  young  man,  senex,  old  man,  canis, 
dog,  panis,  bread. 

Sometimes  in  mensis,  month,  sedes,  seat,  vates,  bard. 
II.  WITH  NOMINATIVE  IN  -C,  -al,  -ar 


cubile,  n.,  couch 
Stem  cubili- 

animal,  n.,  animal 
Stem  animali- 

calcar,  n.,  spur 
Stem  calcari- 

Ending 

SING. 
Noin. 
Gen. 
Dat. 

Ace. 
Voc. 
Abl. 

cubile 
cubllis 
cubili 
cubile 
cubile 
cubili 

animal 
animalis 
animall 
animal 
animal 
animall 

calcar 
calcar  is 
calcarl 
calcar 
calcar 
calcarl 

none 
-is 
-I 

none 
none 
-I 

PLURAL 
Nora. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Voc. 
Abl. 

cubilia 
cubllium 
cubilibus 
cubilia 
cubilia 
cubilibus 

animalia 
animalinm 

animalibus 
animalia 
animalia 
animalibus 

calcaria 
calcarium 
calcaribus 
calcaria 
calcaria 
calcaribus 

-ia 
-ium 
-ibus 
-ia 
-ia 
-ibus 

Notice    that    final    i    of    the    Stem    is    either    lost    or 
changed  to  e.     The  Ablative  Singular  ends  in  -I,  the  Geni- 


26 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


tive  Plural  in  -ium,  and   the   Nominative,  Accusative,  and 
Vocative  Plural  in  -ia. 

C.  MIXED  STEMS 

84  These  appear  to  be  Consonant  Stems  treated 
in  the  Plural  as  i-  Stems. 


nubes,  f., 
cloud 
Stem  nub(i)- 

urbs,  f  .,  city 
Stem  urb(i)- 

arx,  f., 
citadel 
Stem  arc(i)- 

imber,  m., 

shower 
Stemimbr(i)- 

Ending 

SING. 

Nom. 

nubes 

urbs 

arx 

imber 

-s 

Gen. 

nubis 

urbis 

arcis 

irnbris 

-is 

Dat. 

nubi 

urbl 

arcl 

imbrl 

-I 

Ace. 

nubem 

urbem 

arcem 

imbrem 

-em 

Voc. 

nubes 

urbs 

arx 

imber 

-s 

Abl. 

nube 

urbe 

arce 

imbre,  -I 

-e,  -I 

PLURAL 

Nom. 

nubes 

urbes 

arces 

imbres 

-es 

Gen. 

nubi  urn 

urbium 

arcium 

imbrium 

in  in 

Dat. 

nubibus 

urbibus 

arcibus 

imbribus 

-ibus 

Ace. 

nubes,  -Is 

urbes,  -Is 

arces,  -Is 

imbres,  -Is 

-es,  -Is 

Voc. 

nubes 

urbes 

arces 

imbres 

-es 

Abl. 

nubibus 

urbibus 

arcibus 

imbribus 

-ibus 

Notice  the  Genitive  Plural  ends  in  -ium,  and  the  Accusa- 
tive Plural  in  -es  or  -is. 

Important  nouns  with  Mixed  Stems  are  : 

1.  Nouns  in  -es,  with  Genitive  in  -is ;  as  aedes,  temple* 
caedes,  slaughter,  clades,  disaster,  nubes,  cloud,  rupes,  rock. 

2.  Most  monosyllables  in  -s  or  -x  preceded  hy  a  consonant ; 
as  arx,  citadel,  calx,  heel,  stirps,  stock,  urbs,  city. 

Also  dens,  gens,  mens, 
fons,  mons,  pons, 
ars,  pars,  sors. 

3.  Most  nouns  in  -ns,  -rs  ;  as  cliens,  tridens,  cohors. 

4.  fur,  Us,  mas,  mus,  nix. 


NOUNS 


85 


D.  RARE  AND  IRREGULAR  FORMS 
Stems  in  -I,  -u,  -ou  ( =  -ov) 


vis,  f.,  force 
Stem  vl- 

sus,  ra.  f.,  swine 
Stem  su- 

bos,  m.  f.,  ox,  cow 
Stem  bou- 

SING. 
Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Voc. 
Abl. 

V1S 

sus 
suis 
sul 
suem 

sus 
sue 

bos 
bovis 
bovi 
bovera 

bos 
bove 

vim 

VI 

PLURAL 
Nora. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Voc. 
Abl. 

vires 
virinm 
viribus 
vires 
vires 
viribus 

sues 
suum 
suibus,  subus 
sues 
sues 
suibus,  subus 

boves 
bovum,  bourn 
bobus,  bubus 

boves 
boves 
bobus,  bubus 

86 


Jupiter,  Jupiter,  is  declined  in  the  Singular  only :  Jupiter, 
Jovis,  Jovl,  Jovem,  Jupiter,  Jove. 

Irregular  Nouns 


senex,  in.,  old  man 

caro,  f.,  flesh 

OS,  n.,  bone 

iter,  n.,  Journey 

SING. 
Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Voc. 
Abl. 

senex 
senis 
sen! 
sen  em 

senex 
sene 

caro 
earn  is 
carnl 
carnem 
caro 
carne 

OS 

ossis 
ossl 

OS 
OS 

osse 

iter 
itineris 
itineri 
iter 
iter 
itinere 

PLURAL 
Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Voc. 
Abl. 

senes 
senum 
senibus 

senes 
senes 
senibus 

carnes 

ossa 
ossium 
ossibus 

ossa 
ossa 
ossibus 

itinera 
itinerum 
itineribus 
itinera 
itinera 
itineribus 

carnibus 
carnes 
carnes 
carnibus 

87  The  Locative  Singular  ends  in  -I  or  -e,  the  Locative  Plural 
in  -ibus  :  Tlburl  or  Tibure,  at  Tilur,  run,  in  the  country, 
vesper!  or  vespere,  at  evening,  Gadibus,  at  Gades. 


28  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

RULES  FOR  GENDER  IN  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION 

88  Nouns  in  -o,  -or,  -os,  -er,  -es,  are  Masculine. 

IMPORTANT  EXCEPTIONS 

1.  In  -o,  -or,  -os. 

Feminine  :  card,  flesh,  arbor,  tree,  dos,  dowry. 
Neuter :      aequor,  sea,  cor,  heart,  6s,  mouth.    Also 
6s,  hone. 

2.  In  -er,  -es. 

Feminine  :  linter,  boat,  seges,  crop. 

Neuter  :      iter,  way,  aes,  copper.    Also  ver,  spring. 

89  Nouns  in  -as,  -es,  -is,  -us,  -ys ;  -x,  -s  (after  a 
consonant) ;  -do,  -go ;  -io  (in  abstract  and  col- 
lective nouns),  are  Feminine. 

IMPORTANT  EXCEPTIONS 

1.  In  -as,  -es. 

Masculine  :  as,  farthing,  pes,  foot, 
aries,  ram,  paries,  wall. 

2.  In  -is. 

Masculine  :  All  in  -nis  and  -guis  ;  as  finis,  end,  Ignis, 

fire,  panis,  bread,  sanguis,  blood. 
Also  axis,  axle         fascis,  bundle       orbis,  circle 
collis,  hill        lapis,  stone  piscis,fish 

ensis,  sword    mensis,  month     pulvis,  dust 

3.  In  -us. 

Common  :     mus,  mouse. 

Neuter  :        crus,  leg,  jus,  right,  rus,  the  country. 

4.  In  -x. 

Masculine  :  calix,  cup,  grex,/0c&,  vertex,  summit. 

5.  In  -s  after  a  consonant. 

Masculine  :  dens,  tooth,  fons,  fountain,  mons,  moun- 
tain, pons,  bridge. 

6.  In  -do,  -go. 

Masculine  :  cardo,  hinge,  ordo,  order,  margo,  border. 


NOUNS 


29 


90  Nouns  in  -a,  -e,  -I,  -y ;  -c,  -1,  -n,  -t ;  -ar,  -ur,  -us,  are 
Neuter. 

IMPORTANT  EXCEPTIONS 

1.  In  -1. 

Masculine  :  sal,  salt,  sol,  sun. 

2.  In  -ur,  -us. 

Masculine  :  vultur,  vulture,  lepus,  hare. 

GEEEK  NOUNS 

91  Greek  nouns  of  the  Third  Declension  often  take  the  regular 
Latin  endings,  but  sometimes  preserve  their  Greek  endings, 
particularly  the  following : 

1.  -a  in  Accusative  Singular. 

2.  -es  in  Nominative  Plural. 

3.  -as  in  Accusative  Plural. 

4.  -is  in  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural  of  Neuters  in  -ma. 


heros,  m.,  hero 

la  in  pas,  f.,  torch 

poema,  n.,poem 

SING.  Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Voc. 
Abl. 

herds 

herois 
heroi 
heroa 
heros 
heroe 

lampas 
lampados 
larapadl 
lampada 
lampas 
lampade 

poem  a 
poematis 
poemati 
poema 
poema 
poem  ate 

PLUR.  Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Voc. 
Abl. 

heroes 
heroum 
heroi  bus 
hero&S 
heroes 
heroibns 

lampades 
lampadum 
lampadibus 
lampadas 
lampades 
lampadibus 

poemata 
poematum 
poematis 
poemata 
poemata 
poematis 

But  Greek  Nouns  are  sometimes  declined  with  both  Greek 
and  Latin  endings. 
92  Examples  of  Greek  Proper  Nouns  : 


Dido,  Dido 

Paris,  Paris 

Atlas,  Atlas 

SING.  Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Voc. 
Abl. 

Dido 
Didus,  -onis 
Dido,  -onl 
Dido,  -onem 
Dido 
Dido,  -one 

Paris 
Paridis,  -OS 
Paridi,  -i 
Parida,  -im 
Paris,  Pari 
Paride 

Atlas 
Atlantis 
AtlantI 
Atlanta 
Atla 
Atlante 

30 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


FOURTH  DECLENSION 

93  The    Stem    ends    in    -ii.      Fourth    Declension 
/  nouns  in  -us   are  Masculine,   those  in  -ii  are 
Neuter. 


fructus,  m.,  fruit 
Stem  fructu- 

Ending 

cornu,  n.,  horn 
Stem  cornu- 

Ending 

SING. 

Nom. 

fructus 

-us 

cornu 

-n 

Gen. 

fructfis 

-us 

corn  us 

-us 

Dat. 

fructui,  -ii 

-ul,  -ii 

cornu 

-u 

Ace. 

fructum 

-um 

cornu 

-u 

Voc. 

fruetus 

-us 

cornu 

-u 

Abl. 

fructu 

-u 

cornu 

-u 

PLURAL 

Nom. 

fructfis 

-us 

cornua 

-ua 

Gen. 

fructuum 

-uum 

cornuum 

-unm 

Dat. 

fructibus 

-ibus 

corn  ibus 

-ibus 

Ace. 

fructus 

-us 

cornua 

-ua 

Voc. 

fructfis 

-us 

cornua 

-ua 

Abl. 

fructibus 

-ibus 

cornibus 

-ibus 

94  These  nouns  in  -us  are  Feminine :  acus,  needle,  anus,  old 
woman,  colus,  distaff  (68),  domus,  house,  manus,  hand,  por- 
ticus,  porch,  Idus  (pi.),  the  Ides. 

95  domus,  f .,  house,  is  declined  as  follows : 


Singular 

Plural 

Norn. 

domus 

domus 

Gen. 

domus 

domuum,  domorum 

Dat. 

domul,  dome 

domibus 

Ace. 

domum 

domus,  domos 

Voc. 

domus 

domus 

Abl. 

domu,  dome 

domibus 

There  is  also  the  Locative  form  domi,  at  home. 


NOUNS 


31 


96  These  nouns  have  -ubus  or  -ibus  in  the  Dative  and  Abla- 
tive Plural :  acus,  needle,  artus,  limbs,  partus,  birth,  por- 
tus,  harbor ;  and  dissyllables  in  -cus,  as  arcus,  bow,  lacus, 
lake.  tribus,  tribe,  has  -ubus  only. 


FIFTH  DECLENSION 

97  The  Stem  ends  in  -e.     Fifth  Declension  nouns 
end  in  -es,  and  are  Feminine. 


res,  f.,  thing 
Stem  re- 

dies,  m.,  day 
Stem  die- 

spes,  f.,  hope 
Stem  spe 

fides,  f.,  faith 
Stem  flde- 

Ending 

SING. 

Nom. 

res 

dies 

spes 

fides 

-es 

Gen. 

rel 

die! 

spei 

fidel 

-el 

Dat. 

rel 

diel 

speT 

fidei 

-51 

Ace. 

rem 

diem 

spem 

fidem 

-em 

Voc. 

res 

dies 

spes 

fides 

-es 

Abl. 

re 

die 

spe 

fide 

-e 

PLURAL 

Nom. 

res 

dies 

spes 



-es 

Gen. 

rerum 

dierum 





-erum 

Dat. 

rebus 

diebus 





-ebus 

Ace. 

res 

dies 

spes 



-es 

Voc. 

res 

dies 





-es 

Abl. 

rebus 

diebus 





-ebus 

98  The  Locative  case  ends  in  -e.  It  occurs  in  the  compounds 
of  die :  hodie,  to-day,  prldie,  on  the  day  before,  postrldie, 
on  the  day  after. 

meridies,  noon,  is  always  and  dies,  day,  is  usually  mas- 
culine, dies  is  sometimes  feminine  in  the  singular,  especially 
when  it  means  an  appointed  time. 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


99 


Stems  and  Endings  of  All  Declensions 


FIRST 

SECOND 

THIRD 

FOURTH 

FIFTH 

-a 

-6 

-vi  or  Consonant 

-U 

-e 

F. 

M. 

N. 

M.andF. 

N. 

M. 

N. 

F. 

Nom. 

-a 

-us,  — 

-um 

-s,  — 

— 

-us 

-u 

-es 

ft 

Gen. 

-ae 

-I 

-I 

-is 

-is 

-us 

-us 

-el 

D 

Dat. 

-ae 

-5 

-5 

-I 

-I 

-ul,  -u 

-u 

-el 

Ace. 

-am 

-um 

-um 

-em,-im 

— 

-um 

-u 

-em 

CO 

Voc. 

-a 

-e,  — 

-um 

-s,  — 

— 

-us 

-u 

-es 

Abl. 

-a 

-0 

-5 

-e,  -I 

-e,  -I 

-u 

-u 

-e 

Nom. 

-ae 

.I 

-a 

-es 

-U)a 

-us 

-ua 

-cs 

Gen. 

-arum 

-or  urn 

-drum 

-(i)um 

•(i)nm 

u  u  in 

-uum 

-erum 

3 

Dat. 

-Is 

-Is 

-Is 

-ibus 

-ibus 

-ibus 

-ibus 

-ebus 

j 

Ace. 

-as 

-OS 

-a 

-es,  -Is 

-(i)a 

-us 

-ua 

-es 

cu 

Voc. 

-ae 

-I 

-a 

-es 

-(Da 

us 

-ua 

-es 

Abl. 

-Is 

-Is 

-Is 

-ibus 

-ibus 

-ibus 

-ibus 

-ebus 

Indeclinable,  Defective,  and  Variable  Nouns  of  All 
Declensions 

I.  INDECLINABLE 

100  Indeclinable   Nouns   are   neuter,    and   occur  in   the   singu- 
j       lar  only. 

They  are  fas,  right,  nefas,  wrong,  nihil,  nothing,  Instar, 
likeness,  mane,  morning. 

II.  DEFECTIVE 

101  Defective  nouns  lacking  a  regular  plural  meaning  are  used 
mostly  in  the  singular. 

1.  Proper  names ;  as  Roma,  Rome,  Italia,  Italy. 

2.  Abstract  nouns ;  as  gravitas,  dignity. 

3.  Names  of  material ;  as  ferrum,  iron,  oleum,  oil. 


NOUNS  33 

102  Defective  nouns  used  only  in  the  plural : 

1.  Names    of    classes :    as  majores,    ancestors,   gemini, 


2.  Some  names  of  places:  as  Athenae,  Athens,  Gades, 
Gades,  Alpes,  the  Alps. 

3.  Also  the  following : 

angustiae,  narrows,  a  defile     minae,  threats 
arma,  arms  nuptiae,  nuptials 

divitiae,  riches  reliquiae,  remains 

Insidiae,  ambush,  "  snares  "     tenlbrae,  darkness, 
manes,  the  shades  the  "  shades  "  of  night 

i^ 

103  Nouns  Defective  in  Case.     Important  to  remember  are : 

1.  jussu,  by  order,  natu,  by  Urth,  in  ablative  only. 

2.  fors,  chance,  forte,  by  chance ;  spontis,  of  choice,  sponte, 
~by  choice,  have  two  cases  only. 

3.  preci,  precem,   prece,  prayer-,  vicis   (gen.),  vicem, 
vice,  turn,  have  three  cases  only  in  the  singular. 

4.  opis,  opi,  opem,  ope,  help,  has  four  cases  only  in  the 
singular.     It  lacks  the  Nominative  and  Vocative. 

III.   VARIABLE 

,/ 

104  Nouns  varying  their  meaning  in  the  Plural : 

aedes,  temple  aedes,  house 

auxilium,  help  auxilia,  auxiliaries 

castrum,  castle  castra,  camp 

copia,  plenty  copiae,  troops 

finis,  end  fines,  boundaries 

gratia,  favor  gratiae,  thanks 
impedimentum,  hindrance     impedimenta,  baggage 

littera,  letter  of  alphabet  litterae,  epistle 

mos,  custom  mores,  morals,  character 

(ops)  opis,  help  opes,  resources 

pars,  part  partes,  a  party 


34  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

105  Nouns  varying  in  Gender  (Heterogeneous). 

1.  In  the  singular  : 

clipeus,  clipeum,  shield. 

2.  In  the  plural  : 

loci,  m.,  topics,  loca,  noplaces;  ; 


V 


joci,  m.,  and  joca,  n., 

3.  Between  the  singular  and  plural :  caelum,  n.,  heaven, 
caeli,  m.,  the  heavens-,  epulum,  n.,  and  epulae,  L,  feast. 

106  Nouns  varying  in  Declension  (Heteroclites). 

1.  First  and  Fifth.     Some  First  Declension  nouns  in  -ia 
have  Fifth  Declension  forms  in  -ies,  as  materia,  materies, 
matter. 

2.  Second  and  Third :  jugerum,  -I,  acre ;  plural  jugera, 
-um,  -ibus ;  vas,  vasis,  jar ;  plural  vasa,  vasorum. 

3.  Second  and  Fourth  :  domus,  house.     See  95. 

4.  Third  and  Fifth  :  plebs,  -bis,  or  plebes,  -el,  the  people. 
Two  nouns  of  the   Third   Declension,    requies,    rest,   and 
fames,  hunger,  take  respectively  the  additional  Fifth  Declen 
sion  forms  requiem  and  fame. 


ADJECTIVES 

107  Adjectives  are  declined  like  Nouns,  and  have 
three  genders  in  each  case.  Thus,  Nominative 
bonus,  m.,  bona,  f.,  bonum,  n.,  good.  Adjec- 
tives are  divided  into— 

I.  Adjectives  of  the   First   and   Second 

Declensions. 
II.  Adjectives  of  the  Third  Declension. 


ADJECTIVES 


35 


108 


I.  ADJECTIVES   OF  THE  FIRST  AND 
SECOND  DECLENSIONS 

bonus,  good\  masculine  like   hortus 


Masculine 

Feminine 

Neuter 

SING. 

Nora. 

bonus 

bona 

bonum 

Gen. 

bonl 

bonae 

bonl 

Dat. 

bono 

bonae 

bono 

Ace. 

bonum 

bou  am 

bonum 

Voc. 

bone 

bona 

bonum 

Abl. 

bono 

bona 

bono 

PLURAL 

Nom. 

bonl 

bonae 

bona 

Gen. 

bonornm 

bonarum 

bonorum 

Dat. 

bonls 

bonls 

bonls 

Ace. 

bonos 

bonas 

bona 

Voe. 

bonl 

bonae 

bona 

Abl. 

bonls 

bonls 

bonls 

109 


liber,  free ;   masculine  like  puer 


Masculine 

Feminine 

Neuter 

SING. 

N^om. 

liber 

libera 

liberum 

Gen. 

Ilberi 

liberae 

liberi 

Dat. 

libero 

liberae 

libero 

Ace. 

liberum 

liberam 

liberum 

Voc. 

liber 

libera 

liberum 

Abl. 

libero 

libera 

libero 

PLURAL 

Nom. 

liberi 

liberae 

libera 

Gen. 

liberorum 

liberarum 

liberorum 

Dat. 

liberls 

liberls 

liberls 

Ace. 

liberos 

liberas 

libera 

Voc, 

liberi 

liberae 

libera 

Abl. 

liberls 

liberTs 

liberls 

36 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


110 


sacer,  sacred ;  masculine  like  ager 


Masculine 

Feminine 

Neuter 

SING. 

Nom. 

sacer 

sacra 

sacrum 

Gen. 

sacri 

sacrae 

sacri 

Dat. 

sacro 

sacrae 

sacro 

Ace. 

sacrum 

sacram 

sacrum 

Voc. 

sacer 

sacra 

sacrum 

Abl. 

sacro 

sacra 

sacro 

PLURAL 

Nom. 

sacri 

sacrae 

sacra 

Gen. 

sacrorum 

sacrarum 

sacrorum 

Dat, 

sacris 

sacris 

sacris 

Ace. 

sacros 

sacras 

sacra 

Voc. 

sacri 

sacrae 

sacra 

Abl. 

sacris 

sacris 

sacris 

111  Most  adjectives  in  -er  are  declined  like  sacer.     A  few  are 
like  liber ;  as  asper,  rough,  miser,  wretched,  tener,  tender. 
dexter,  right,  is  declined  both  ways :  dextera,  dexterum, 
or  dextra,  dextrum. 

112  Xine  adjectives  have  -lus  throughout  the  Genitive  Singular 
and  -I  throughout  the  Dative  Singular : 


unus 

una 

unum 

one 

solus 

sola 

solum 

alone 

totus 

tota 

totum 

whole 

ullus 

ulla 

ullum 

any 

nullus 

nulla 

nullum 

not  any,  no 

alius 

alia 

aliud 

another 

alter 

altera 

alterum 

the  other 

uter 

utra 

utrum 

which  (of  two)  ? 

neuter 

neutra 

neutrum 

neither 

These  adjectives  have  no  Vocative.  The  Genitive  of  alter 
is  alterius.  This  is  regularly  used  in  place  of  the  Genitive 
alms,  wjiich  is  very  rare. 


ADJECTIVES  37 

Notice  -d  in  the  Neuter  Singular  ending  of  alius  in  Nomi- 
native and  Accusative. 


II.  ADJECTIVES  OF  THE  THIED 
DECLENSION 

113  These  are  divided,  according  to  their  Endings 
in  the  Nominative,  into 

1.  Adjectives  of  Three  Endings. 

2.  Adjectives  of  Two  Endings. 

3.  Adjectives  of  One  Ending. 

Except  Comparatives,  they  are  nearly  all  declined  like  1- 
Stems. 

1.  Adjectives  of  Three  Endings 

114  acer,  sharp 


Masculine 

Feminine 

Neuter 

SING. 

Nom. 

acer 

acris 

acre 

Gen. 

acpis 

acris 

acris 

Dat, 

acrl 

acrl 

acrl 

Ace. 

acrem 

acrem 

acre 

Voc. 

acer 

acris 

acre 

Abl. 

acrl 

acrl 

acrl 

PLURAL 

Nom. 

acres 

acres 

acria 

Gen. 

acrium 

acrium 

acrium 

Dat. 

acribus 

acribus 

acribus 

Ace. 

acres,  -Is 

acres,  -Is 

acria 

Voc. 

acres 

acres 

acria 

Abl. 

acribus 

acribus 

acribus 

But  celer,  swift,  keeps  the  e 
celere. 

4 


before  r:   celer,  celeris, 


38 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


115 


2.  Adjectives  of  Two  Endings 
fortis,  strong  fortior,  stronger 


M.  and  F. 

N. 

SING. 

Nom. 

fortis 

forte 

Gen. 

fortis 

fortis 

Dat. 

fortl 

fortl 

Ace. 

fortem 

forte 

Voc. 

fortis 

forte 

Abl. 

fortl 

fortl 

PLURAL 

Nom. 

fortes 

fortia 

Gen. 

fortium 

fortium 

Dat. 

fortibus 

fortibus 

Ace. 

fortes,  -Is 

fortia 

Voc. 

fortes 

fortia 

Abl. 

fortibus 

fortibus 

M.  and  F. 

N. 

fortior 

fortius 

fortior  is 

fortioris 

fortiori 

fortiori 

fortiorem 

fortius 

fortior 

fortius 

fortiore 

fortiore 

fortiores 

fortiora 

fortiorum 

fortioriini 

fortioribus 

fortioribus 

fortiores 

fortiora 

fortiores 

fortiora 

fortioribus 

fortioribus 

116 


Comparatives  are  declined  like  fortior.  Notice  in  fortior 
the  Ablative  Singular  in  -e,  the  Genitive  Plural  in  -um,  and 
the  Nominative,  Accusative,  and  Vocative  Plural  Neuter  in  -a. 
The  endings  -I  (Ablative)  and  -is  occur,  but  are  rare. 

3.  Adjectives  of  One  Ending 
felix,  happy  amans,  loving 


M.  and  F. 

N. 

SING. 

Nom. 

felix 

felix 

Gen. 

felicis 

felicis 

Dat. 

felicl 

felicl 

Ace. 

fellcem 

felix 

Voc. 

felix 

felix 

Abl. 

felicl 

felicl 

PLURAL 

Nom. 

fellces 

felicia 

Gen. 

felicium 

felicium 

Dat. 

felicibus 

felicibus 

Ace. 

fellces,  -Is 

fellcia 

Voc. 

fellces 

frllcia 

Abl. 

felicibus 

felicibus 

M.  ar>d  F. 

N. 

amans 

amans 

amantis 

amantis 

am  ant  I 

amantl 

amantem 

amans 

amans 

amans 

amantl 

amantl 

am  antes 

amantia 

amantium 

amantium 

ainantibus 

amantibus 

amantes.  -Is 

amantia 

amantes 

amantia 

ainantibus 

amantibus 

ADJECTIVES 


39 


In  the  Ablative  Singular  -e  for  -I  often  occurs  in  poetry, 
but  is  not  common  in  prose  of  the  classical  period,  except  in 
Participles  in  -ans  and  -ens  used  as  nouns  or  occurring  in 
the  Ablative  Absolute  (397).  Thus  amante,  lover,  me  impe- 
rante,  l>y  my  command. 

117  Less  regular  are  such  Adjectives  of  One  Ending  as  the  follow- 
ing : 

vetus,  old  memor,  mindful         plus,  more 


M.  and  F. 

N. 

M.  and  F. 

N. 

M.  and  F. 

N. 

SING. 

Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 

vetus 
veteris 
veteii 

vetus 
veteris 
veterl 

memor 
memoris 
memori 

memor 
memoris 
memori 



plus 
pluris 

Ace. 

Voc. 

veterem 
vetus 

vetus 
vetus 

memorem 
memor 

memor 
memor 



plus 

Abl. 

vetere 

vetere 

memori 

memori 



plure 

PLUR. 

Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 

Voc. 
Abl. 

veteres 
veterum 

veteribus 
veteres 
veteres 
veteribus 

vetera 
veterum 
veteribus 

vetera 
vetera 
veteribus 

memores 
memorum 
memoribus 
memores,  -Is 
memores 
memoribus 



plures 
plurium 
pluribus 
plures,  -Is 

pluribus 

plura 
plurium 
pluribus 
plura 

pluribus 

Like  vetus  in  case-endings  are  dives  (gen.  divitis),  rich, 
pauper  (gen.  pauperis),  poor,  particeps  (gen.  participis), 
sharing,  princeps  (gen.  principis),  chief.  Like  memor  is 
inops  (gen.  inopis),  needy. 

118  Indeclinable  Adjectives  :  frugl,  thrifty,  nequam,  worthless, 
and  most  Cardinal  Numeral  Adjectives.     See  132. 

COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES 

Regular  Comparison 

119  Adjectives  are  compared  in  three   Degrees— 
the  Positive,  Comparative,  and  Superlative ;  as 


40  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

fortis,    fortior,    fortissimus,    strong,   stronger, 
strongest. 

120  The    Comparative   is   formed   by   adding    -ior 
(neuter  -ius),  and  the  Superlative  by  adding 
-issimus  (-a,  -um)  to  the  Stem  of  the  Positive. 

When  the  stem  ends  in  a  vowel,  the  vowel  is  dropped. 

POSITIVE  COMPARATIVE  SUPERLATIVE 

alt  us.  high  altior,  higher  allissiiuus,  highest 

fellx,  happy  felicior,  happier        fellcissimus,  happiest 

121  Participles  used  as  Adjectives  are  compared  in  the  same  way : 

amans,  loving  amantior,  more         anianl issimns,  most 

loving  loving 

122  But   Adjectives  in    -er    form   the    Superlative    by   adding 
-rimus  to  the  Nominative  of  the  Positive  : 

liber,  free  liberior  liberrimus 

acer,  sharp  acrior  acerrimus 

123  Six   Adjectives  in    -ilis    form  the   Superlative   by   adding 
-limus  to  the  stem  of  the  Positive  less  its  final  vowel : 

facilis,  easy  facilior  fan  1 1  i  in  us 

difflcilis,  difficult  difflcilior  difficillinms 

similis,  like  similior  si  in  i  1 1  i  in  us 

dissimilis,  unlike  dissimilior  dissimillimus 

humilis,  low  hnmilior  humillimus 

gracilis,  slender  gracilior  gracillimus 

124  Adjectives  in  -dicus,  -ficus,  -volus  are  compared  as  if  end- 
ing in  -dicens,  -ficens,  -volens : 

maledicus,  slanderous          maledicentior  maledlcentissimus 

maun  i  (icus,  magnificent        ma^niflcentior         magniflcentissimus 
benevolus,  kindly  benevolentior  benevolentissimus 

Also 

egenus,  needy  egentior  egentissinms 

providus,  foreseeing  providentior  providentissimus 


ADJECTIVES 


41 


Irregular  and  Defective  Comparison 

125  The  following  are  Irregular  in  Comparison 


POSITIVE 

bonus,  good 
mains,  bad 
magnus,  large 
parvus,  small 
multus,  much 
frugl,  thrifty 
nequam,  worthless 


COMPARATIVE 

melior 

pejor 

major 

minor 

plus 

frugalior 

nequior 


SUPERLATIVE 

optimus 

pessimus 

maximus 

minimus 

plurimus 

rrugalissimus 

nequissimus 


126  The  following  are  Defective  in  Comparison : 


1.  No  Positive. 


2.  Positive  Rare, 
(poster!) 

(exterl) 
(Infer!) 
(super!) 

127  3.  No  Comparative. 

vetus,  old 
novus,  new 
f!dus,  faithful 
falsus,  false 
sacer,  sacred 
pins,  good 

128  4.  No  Superlative. 

alacer,  lively 
ingens,  huge 
pronns,  inclined 
juvenis,  young 
senex,  old 


prior,  former 
citerior,  hither 
ulterior,  farther 
interior,  inner 
propior,  nearer 
deterior,  inferior 
potior,  preferable 
ocior,  swifter 


posterior,  later 
exterior,  outer 


primus,  first 
citimus,  hithermost 
ul t  i n 1 1 is.  farthest,  last 
i  nl  i in  us.  inmost 
proximus,  nearest,  next 
deterrimus,  worst 
Ijol  issi m us.  best 
ocissimus,  swiftest 


postremus,  latest,  last 
postumus,  late-born 


Inferior,  lower 
superior,  higher 

8S"  }"-" 

supremus,  last 
summns,  highest 

veterrimus 

novissimus 

fidissiinus 

falsissimus 

sacerrimus 

pi  issi  in  us 


alacrior 

ingentior 

pronior 

junior 

senior 


[Use  natu  minimus] 
Use  natu  maximus] 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


Comparison  ~by  magis  and  maxime 

129  Some  Adjectives  have  no  endings  of  Comparison,  and  use 
instead  the  Adverbs  magis,  more,  and  maxime,  most.  They 
include  most  Adjectives  in  -eus,  -ius,  -uus  (except  -quus),  as 


POSITIVE 

idoneus,  fit 


COMPARATIVE 

magis  idoneus 


SUPERLATIVE 

maxime  idoneus 


NUMERALS 

130  Numerals  include  Numeral  Adjectives  and  Nu- 
meral Adverbs. 

Numeral  Adjectives  are  of  three  kinds  : 
•  Cardinal :  as  unus,  one,  duo,  two,  tres,  three. 
Ordinal :  as  primus,  first,  secundus,  second. 
Distributive  :  as  singuli,  one  by  one,  bin!,  two 
by  two. 

Declension  of  Numeral  Adjectives 

131  The  only  Cardinals  declined  are  unus,  duo,  tres,  and  the 
hundreds  above  centum.     The  latter  are  declined  like  the 
plural  of  bonus :  ducenti,  -ae,  -a,  two  hundred. 

unus,  one,  alone,  the  only 


Singular 

Plural 

M. 

F. 

N. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

Nora. 

unus 

n  M  a 

iiiiiini 

unl 

finae 

iina 

Gen. 

u  n  ins 

minis 

unius 

unoruin 

nnarum 

unoruin 

Dat. 

u  nl 

unl 

unl 

finis 

finis 

finis 

Ace. 

n  n  n  111 

uii  am 

uniim 

UII  OS 

unas 

fin  a 

Abl. 

uno 

iniii 

uno 

finis 

miis 

unis 

duo,  two 


tres,  three 


Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Abl. 

M.                   F.                 N. 
duo               duae           duo 
dnorum        duarum      duorum 
duobus         duabus       duobus 
duos,  duo     <i  mis            duo 
duobus        duabus*      duobus 

M.  and  F.      N. 
tres          tria 
trinm      triuin 
tribus      tribus 
tres,  trls  tria 
tribus      tribus 

ADJECTIVES 


2                                          Table  of  Numerals 

CARDINALS 

ORDINALS 

DISTRIBUTIVES 

ADVERBS 

I. 

unus,una,  unum 

primus,  first 

singull,  one  by  one  semel,  once 

II. 

duo,  duae,  duo 

secundus,  second 

blnl,  two  by  two 

bis,  twice 

III. 

tres,  tria 

tertius,  third 

ternl  (trim) 

ter,  thrice 

IV. 

quattuor 

quartus,  fourth 

quaternl 

quater 

V. 

qulnque 

qolnttts 

quml 

qulnquies 

VI. 

sex 

sextus 

senl 

sexies 

VII. 

septem 

Septimus 

septenl 

septies 

VIII. 

octo 

octavus 

octonl 

octies 

IX. 

novem 

nonus 

novenl 

novies 

X. 

decem 

decimus 

deni 

decies 

XI. 

undecim 

undecimus 

undeni 

undecies 

XII. 

duodecim 

duodecirnus 

duodeni 

duodecies 

XIII. 

tredecirn 

tertius  decimus 

ternl  deni 

terdecies 

XIV. 

quattuordecim 

quartus  decimus 

quaternl  deni 

quater  decies 

XV. 

quindecim 

quintus  decimus 

qulni  deni 

qulnquies  decies 

XVI. 

sedecim 

sextus  decimus 

senl  deni 

sexies  decies 

XVII. 

septendecim 

Septimus  decimus 

septenl  deni 

septies  decies 

XVIII. 

duodevlgintl 

duodevicesimus 

duodevicenl 

octies  decies 

XIX. 

undevlginti 

undevicesimus 

undeviceni 

novies  decies 

XX. 

vigintl 

viccsimus 

viceni 

vlcies 

XXL 

r  vigintl  unus 
(  unus  et  vlginti 

vicesimus  primus 
unus  et  vicesimus 

vicenl  singull 
singull  et  viceni 

•j  vlcies  semel 

XXII. 

(  vlginti  duo 

vicesimus  secundus 

viceni  blnl 

v  vi(3i(3s  bis 

(duo  et  vlginti 

alter  et  vicesimus 

blnl  et  viceni 

XXX. 

trlginta 

trlcesimus 

trlcenl 

trlcies 

XL. 

quadraginta 

quadragesimus 

quadragenl 

quadragies 

L. 

qulnquaginta 

qulnquagesimus 

qulnquageni 

qulnquagies 

LX. 

sexaginta 

sexagesimus 

sexageni 

sexagies 

LXX. 

septuaginta 

septuagesimus 

septuageni 

septuagies 

LXXX. 

octoginta 

octogesimus 

octogeni 

octogies 

XC. 

nonaginta 

nonagesimus 

nonagenl 

nonagies 

C. 

centum 

centesimus 

centenl 

centies 

CL 

centum  unus 

centesimus  primus 

centeni^  singull 

centies  semel 

CO. 

duoenti,  -ae,  -a 

ducentesimus 

duceni 

ducenties 

CCC. 

trecenti 

trecentesimus 

trecenl 

trecenties 

cccc. 

quadringentl 

qu  adringentesi  m  us 

quadringenl 

quadringenties 

D. 

quingenti 

qulngentesimus 

qumgenl 

qulngenties 

DC. 

sescentl 

sescentesimus 

sescenl 

sescenties 

DCC. 

septingentl 

septingentesimus 

septingeni 

septingenties 

DCCC. 

octingenti 

octingentesimus 

octingeni 

octingenties 

DCCCC 

,   nongenti 

nongentesimus 

nongenl 

nongenties 

M. 

mille 

mlllesimus 

singula  milia 

mlllies 

MM. 

duo  milia 

bis  millesimus 

bma  milia 

bis  mlllies 

44  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

133  mille,  thousand,  in  its  singular  form  is  an  indeclinable  adjec- 
tive.    Thus  mille  milites,  a  thousand  soldiers.     Its  plural, 
milia,  is  a  noun,  and  is  declined  milia,  milium,  milibus,  mi- 
lia, milia,  milibus.    Thus  duo  milia  means  two  thousands  of 
anything.    The  things  thus  numbered  usually  go  in  the  Geni- 
tive :  duo  milia  militum,  two  thousand  soldiers. 

134  All  Ordinals  are  declined  like  bonus ;  all  Distributives  like 
the  plural  of  bonus. 

135  The  following  signs  and  their  combinations  are  used  for  the 
various  numbers  :   1  =  1,  V  =  5,   X  =  10,   L  =  50,   C  =  100, 
D  =  500,  M  =  1,000.     In  combining  these  the  larger  numeral 
regularly  precedes.     Thus  VI  =  6,  XVI  =  16,  LVI  =  56,  and 
so  on.     When  the  smaller  numeral  precedes,  it  is  to  be  read 
by  subtraction.     This  occurs  in  the  numerals  IV  =  4,  IX  =  9, 
XL  =  40,  XC  =  90,  and  their  combinations.    Thus  XCIX  =  99. 


PRONOUNS 

136  Pronouns  are  divided  into— 

I.  Personal  and  Reflexive 
II.  Possessive 

III.  Demonstrative 

IV.  Intensive 
V.  Relative 

VI.  Interrogative 
VII.  Indefinite 

I.   PERSONAL  AND  REFLEXIVE 

137  The  Personal  Pronouns  are  ego,  /,  the  pro- 
noun of  the  first  person,  and  tu,  thou,  the  pro- 
noun of  the  second  person.    There  is  no  personal 


PRONOUNS 


pronoun  of  the  third  person.     Its  place  is  taken 
by  the  Demonstratives  is  and  ille  (see  141). 


ego,  / 


tu,  tliou 


SING. 

Nom. 

ego 

/ 

Gen. 

mei 

of  me 

Dat. 

mihi, 

mi  to,  for  me 

Ace. 

me 

me 

VOP 

V  UC» 

Abl. 

me 

with,  from,  by  me 

PLURAL 

Nom. 

nos 

we 

Gen. 

nostrum,  nostrl  of  us 

Dat. 

nobls 

to,  for  us 

Ace. 

nos 

us 

Voc. 





Abl. 

nobls 

with,  from,  by  us 

tu 
tul 
tibi 
te 
tu 
te 

thou,  you 
of  you 
to,  for  you 
you 
0  you 
with,  from,  by  you 

vos         ye,  you 
vestrum,  vestri  of  you 
vobis      to,  for  you 
vos         you 

vos          0  ye,  you 
vobis     with,  from,  by  you 

nostrum  and  vestrum  usually  have  a  Partitive  meaning  : 
quis  nostrum,  who  of  us  ? 

138  The  Reflexive  Pronouns  of  the  first  and  sec- 
ond persons  are  supplied  from  the  Personal 
Pronouns.  The  Reflexive  of  the  third  person 
is  sui,  of  himself  (herself,  itself,  themselves). 


mei,  (of)  myself 

till,  (of)  yourself 

sui,  (of)  himself 

SING. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Abl. 

mei 
mihi 
me 
me 

till 
tibi 
te 
te 

sui 
sibi 

se,  sese 
se,  sese 

PLURAL 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Abl. 

nostrum,  -I 
nobls 
nos 
nobls 

vestrum,  -I 
vobis 
vos 
vobis 

sui 
sibi 

se,  sese 
se,  sese 

46 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


II.   POSSESSIVE  PRONOUNS 

139  The  Possessive  Pronouns  are  formed  from  the 
Personal  Pronouns.     They  are — 

meus,  my    noster,  our      for  the  first  person 
tuus,  thy     vester,  your    for  the  second  person 
suus,  his,  theirs  for  the  third  person 

They  are  really  Adjectives,  and  are  declined  like  bonus 
and  liber.  See  108,  109.  The  Vocative  Singular  Masculine 
of  meus  is  mi. 

140  suus  is  used  only  in  a  Reflexive  sense,  usually  referring  to  the 
subject  of  the  sentence  in  which  it  stands.     See  421.     Thus 
filium  suum  laudat  means  he  praises  his  (own)  son,  but  fili- 
um  films  laudat  means  he  praises  his  (another  person' s)  son. 

III.   DEMONSTRATIVE   PRONOUNS 

141  These  point  out  persons  or  things  with  regard 
to  where  they  are.     The  Demonstratives  are — 

hie,  this  (near  me)  for  the  first  person 

iste,  that  (near  you)         for  the  second  person 
ille,  that  (near  him)          for  the  third  person 

Also  is,  that  (like  ille,  but  less  definite). 

Idem,  that  same,  the  same  (made  of  is  -f-  -dem). 

They  have  no  Vocative.  The  forms  of  is  and  ille  often 
mean  he,  she,  it,  or  they.  See  137. 

142  hie,  this  (of  mine) 


Singular 

Plural 

Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Abl. 

Masc. 
hie 
h  11  jus 
huic 
liiinc 
hoc 

Pern. 
haec 
hfijus 
huic 
hauc 
hac 

Neuter 
hoc 
hiijus 
huic 
hoc 
hoc 

Masc. 
hi 
horum 
his 
hos 
his 

Fern. 
hae 
har  uni 
his 
has 
his 

Neuter 
haec 
horum 
his 
haec 
his 

143 


PRONOUNS 
iste,  that  (of  yours) 


Singular 

Plural 

Masc. 

Fern. 

Neuter 

Masc. 

Fern. 

Neuter 

Norn. 

iste 

ista 

istud 

isti 

istae 

ista 

Gen. 

istlus 

istius 

istlus 

istorum 

istarum 

istorum 

Dat. 

isti 

isti 

isti 

istls 

istls 

istls 

Ace. 

istum 

i  si  a  in 

istud 

isto  s 

istas 

ista 

Abl. 

isto 

ista 

isto 

istls 

istls 

istls 

144 


ille,  that  one,  he,  is  declined  like  iste. 


is,  that  one,  he 


Singular 

Plural 

Masc. 

Fern. 

Neuter 

M  asc. 

Fern. 

Neuter 

Nom. 

is 

ea 

id 

el,  ii 

eae 

ea 

Gen. 

ejus 

ejus 

ejus 

eorum 

earum 

eorum 

Dat. 

el 

el 

el 

els,  iis 

els,  ils 

els,  ils 

Ace. 

eum 

earn 

id 

eos 

eas 

ea 

Abl. 

eo 

ea 

eo 

els,  iis 

els,  iis 

els,  iis 

145 


Idem,  the  same 


Singular 

Plural 

Masc. 

Fein. 

Neuter 

Masc. 

Fern. 

Neuter 

Nom. 

Idem 

eadem 

idem 

j  eldem 
j  ildem 

eaedem 

eadem 

Gen. 

cjusdem 

ejusdem 

ejusdem 

eorundem 

earundem 

eorundem 

Dat. 

eldem 

eldem 

eldem 

j  eisdem 
i  ilsdem 

eisdem 
ilsdem 

eisdem  j 
ilsdem  f 

Ace. 

eundem 

eandem 

idem 

eosdem 

easdem 

eadem 

Abl. 

eodem 

eiidem 

eodem 

j  eisdem 
j  ilsdem 

eisdem 
ilsdem 

eisdem  ) 
ilsdem  j 

48 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


146  IV.   INTENSIVE   PRONOUN 

The  Intensive  Pronoun  ipse,  self,  self -same,  is 
declined  like  iste,  except  that  the  Nominative 
and  Accusative  Singular  Neuter  is  ipsum. 

ipse,  him 


Singular 

Plural 

Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Abl. 

Masc. 
ipse 
ipsius 
ipsi 
ipsum 
ipso 

Fern. 
ipsa 
ipsius 
ipsi 
ipsam 
ipsa 

Neuter 
ipsum 
ipsius 
ipsi 
ipsum 
ipso 

Masc. 
ipsi 
ipsorum 
ipsls 
ipsos 
ipsls 

Fern. 
ipsae 
ips;i  rn  in 
ipsls 
ipsas 
ipsls 

Neuter 
ipsa 
ipsorum 
ipsls 
ipsa 
ipsls 

147 


V.   RELATIVE  PRONOUN 
qui,  who 


Singular 

Plural 

Masc. 

Fern. 

Neuter 

Masc. 

Fern. 

Neuter 

Nom. 

qui 

quae 

quod 

qui 

quae 

quae 

Gen. 

cujus 

cujus 

cujus 

quorum 

quarum 

quorum 

Dat. 

cui 

cui 

cui 

quibus 

quibus 

quibus 

Ace. 

quern 

<l  ii  ni  ii 

quod 

quos 

qnas 

quae 

Abl. 

quo 

qua 

quo 

quibus 

quibus 

quibns 

The  old  Ablative  qui  for  all  genders  sometimes  occurs.     Also 
quis  instead  of  quibus. 

VI.   INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUNS 

148  The  Interrogative  Pronouns  are  quis,  who  f 
which  is  used  as  a  Noun,  and  qui,  what  (sort 
of)?  which  is  used  as  an  Adjective. 


PRONOUNS 
quis,  who? 


49 


Sing. 

M.  and  F. 

N. 

Nom. 

quis 

quid 

Gen. 

cujus 

cujus 

Dat. 

cui 

cui 

Ace. 

quern 

quid 

Abl. 

quo 

quo 

The  Interrogative  quis,  who?  in  the  plural,  and  qui, 
ivhat  (sort  of)  ?  in  both  numbers,  are  declined  in  the  same 
way  as  the  Relative  qui. 

VII.   INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS 

149  The  Indefinite  Pronouns  are  quis  and  qui,  any 
one,  some  one,  and  their  compounds.  The 
principal  Indefinite  Pronouns  are 


quis,  any  one 
aliquis,  some  one 
quisquam,  any  one 
quisque,  each 
quispiam,  any  one 
quisquis,  whoever 


qui  (adjective),  any 
aliqui  (adjective),  any 
quidam,  a  certain  one 
quilibet,  which  you  please 
quivis,  which  you  will 
quicumque,  whoever 


Also  ecquis,  (whether)  any 
ne  quis,  (lest)  any 
si  quis,  (if)  any 
nescio  quis,  some  one  or  other 

150  quidam  has  Accusative  singular  quendam,  quandam,  and 
Genitive  plural  quorundam,  quarundam. 

quis  and  aliquis  have  the  ending  -a  instead  of  -ae  in 
the  Nominative  Singular  Feminine  and  the  Nominative  and 
Accusative  Plural  Neuter. 

quisquis  is  used  in  the  Singular  only. 


50 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


Pronominal  and  Correlative  Adjectives 

151  The  following  Pronominal  Adjectives  are  conveniently  added 
here  (see  112) : 

alter,  the  other  alius,  another 

uter,  which  neuter,  neither 

ullus,  any  nullus,  none,  no 

152  Also  these  pairs  of  Correlatives  (see  154) : 

talis,  of  such  kind  qualis,  as 

tantus,  so  great  quantus,  as 

tot,  so  many  quot,  as 

153  Tables  of  Pronouns 

Personal,  Reflexive,  Possessive,  Demonstrative 


Personal 

Reflexive 

Possessive 

Demonstrative 

Of  First  Person 

ego 

mei 

meus  noster 

hie 

Of  Second  Person 

tu 

tul 

tuns    vester 

iste 

Of  Third  Person 

(ille) 

sul 

S11US 

ille 

154 


A  Relative  or  Interrogative  is  often  paired  with  a  correspond- 
ing Demonstrative  ;  as  quantus,  how  great,  tantus,  so  great ; 
ex  quo,  from  what  (time),  ex  1116,  from  that  (time).  Such 
pairs  are  called  Correlatives.  The  following  are  important  to 
remember  : 

Correlative  Pairs 


Relative  or  Interrogative 

Demonstrative 

Simple 

Number 
(how  many) 

Quantity 
(how  large) 

Quality 
(what  kind) 

qui,  quis 
quot 

quantus 
quill  is 

hie,  iste,  ille,  is 
tot 

tantus 
till  is 

VERBS  51 


VERBS 

155  The    Verb    (verbum,    the   word)    is   the   chief 
word  in  Latin,  as  in  other  languages.     It  alone 
brings  out  a  complete  thought,  and  hence  can 
make   a   sentence   by   itself.     It    has   greater 
changes  of  form  than  any  other  Part  of  Speech. 
Its  Inflection  is  called  Conjugation. 

156  A   Verb  changes   its   form   in  five   ways — by 
Voice,  Mood,  Tense,  Number,  and  Person. 

There  are 

Two  Voices :       Active,         Passive. 

Three  Moods  :     Indicative,  Subjunctive,  Imperative. 

Six  Tenses :         Present,       Imperfect,       Future, 

Perfect,       Pluperfect,      Future  Perfect. 

Two  Numbers  :  Singular,      Plural. 

Three  Persons  :  First,  Second,  Third. 

157  To  these  five  forms  of  change  which  constitute  the  entire 
Verb   proper,   usually   called   the   Finite   Yerb,    are   to   be 
added : 

Verbal  forms  used  as  Nouns  :  Infinitive,  Gerund,  Supine. 
Verbal  forms  used  as  Adjectives :  Participle  and  Gerundive. 

VOICES 

158  The  Active  Voice  is  used  to  express  the  Sub- 
ject of  the  Verb   as  acting   or   being.     Thus 
amo;  I  love,  est,  he  is. 


52  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

The  Passive  Voice  is  used  to  express  the 
Subject  of  the  Verb  as  acted  upon.  Thus 
amor,  I  am  loved. 

Transitive  Yerbs  are  conjugated  in  both  Voices,  Intran- 
sitive Verbs  almost  entirely  in  the  Active.  A  Transitive 
Verb  is  one  which  takes  a  Direct  Object  to  fill  out  its  mean- 
ing :  ilium  video,  I  see  him.  Intransitive  Verbs,  from 
their  meaning,  do  not  take  a  Direct  Object:  maneo,  Ire- 
main. 

MOODS 

159  The  Indicative  Mood  states  the  action  of  the 
Verb  as  a  fact :  amo,  /  love,  amabo,  /  shall 
love. 

The  Subjunctive  Mood  states  the  action 
of  the  Verb  as  willed,  desired,  or  possible : 
amet,  let  Mm  love,  may  Tie  love,  he  may 
love. 

The  Imperative  Mood  states  the  action  of 
the  Verb  as  a  command  :  ama,  love  thou  ! 

TENSES 

160  The  six  Tenses  are  used  to   express  the  Ac- 
tion  of  the    Verb   as   Uncompleted   or   Com- 
pleted. 

1.  Three  for  Uncompleted  Action  : 

Present :       amo,  /  love  (I  am  loving.  I  do  love). 
Imperfect :    amabam.  I  was  loving  (I  loved). 
Future  :        amabo,  I  shall  love. 


VERBS  53 

2.  Three  for  Completed  Action  : 

Perfect :  amavl,  /  have  loved,  I  loved. 

Pluperfect :          amaveram,  /  had  loved. 
Future  Perfect :  amavero,  /  shall  have  loved. 

The  Indicative  Mood  has  all  six  Tenses,  the  Subjunctive 
four  (no  Future  and  Future  Perfect),  and  the  Imperative 
only  two — the  Present  and  Future. 

The  Perfect  Tense  has  two  uses  : 

1.  The   Present  Perfect — the   Perfect   with 
have  :  amavl,  /  have  loved. 

2.  The  Past  or  Historical  Perfect :  amavi,  / 
loved. 

161  The  six  Tenses  are  also  used  to  express  the 
Time  of  the  Verb  as  Past,  Present,  or  Fu- 
ture. Those  which  express  Present  or  Future 
time  are  called  Principal  Tenses,  and  those 
which  express  Past  time  are  called  Historical 
Tenses. 

The  Principal  Tenses  are  the 

Present :  amo,  /  love. 

Present  Perfect :  amavi,  /  have  loved. 

Future  :  amabo,  I  shall  love. 

Future  Perfect :  amavero,  /  shall  have  loved. 

The  Historical  Tenses  are  the 

Imperfect :  amabam,  I  was  loving. 

Historical  Perfect :  amavi,  /  loved. 
Pluperfect :  amaveram,  I  had  loved. 

5 


54:  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

NUMBERS  AND  PERSONS 

162  Verbs  have  two   Numbers,  the   Singular  and 
Plural : 

Thus  amat,  he  loves,  amant,  they  love. 

163  Verbs  have  three  Persons,  the  First,  Second, 
and  Third  : 

Thus  amo,  /  love,  amas,  you  love,  amat,  he  loves. 

CONJUGATION   OF   VERBS 

164  Verbs  change  their  form,  or  are  conjugated, 
by    adding    Personal    Endings    (usually    com- 
bined with  Signs  of  Tense  and  Mood)  to  the 
different  Stems. 

I.  STEMS 

165  A  complete  Verb  has  three  Stems — the  Pres- 
ent Stem,  the  Perfect  Stem,  and  the  Participial 
Stem. 

166  In  regular  Verbs  the  Present  or  simple  Stem 
is  changed  into  the  Perfect  Stem  by  adding 
v  (u)  or  s,  and  into  the  Participial  Stem  by 
adding  t. 

PRESENT   STEM  PERFECT   STEM  PARTICIPIAL   STEM 

ama-,  love  amav-,  loved  amat- 

mone-,  advise  monu-,  advised  mon(i)t- 

duc-,  lead  dux-  (—  dues),  led  duct- 

audl-,  hear  audlv-,  heard  audit- 


VERBS 


55 


These  changes  are  sometimes  connected  with  other 
changes,  which  are  to  be  learned  as  they  happen  in  the 
different  Conjugations. 

II.   TENSE  AND   MOOD  SIGNS1 

167  The  different  Tenses  and  Moods  are  shown  by  the 
part  between  the  Stem  and  the  Ending.  Thus 
-bi-  serves  as  a  sign  of  the  Future  Indicative  : 
ama-bi-t  (love-will-he),  he  will  love. 

The  Tense  and  Mood  Signs  of  the  Finite  Verb  are  given 
in  the  following  tables  : 

1.  Those  joined  to  the  Present  Stem  in  both  Active  and 
Passive  Voices. 


Indicative 

Subjunctive 

Imperative 

Present 
Imperfect 
Future 

-(e)ba- 
-bi-       -e-  (-a-) 

-I-          -1- 

•a 

-re- 
tense  lacking 

tense  lacking 
-to- 

2.  Those   joined    to    the   Perfect    Stem   in   the    Active 
Voice. 


• 

Indicative 

Subjunctive 

Perfect 
Pluperfect 
Future  Perfect 

« 

-era- 
-eri- 

-eri- 

-isse- 
tense  lacking 

For  Tense  and  Mood  Signs  of  the  Imperative  see  168. 

1  The  term  Tense  and  Mood  Sign,  while  not  a  scientifically  accurate 
expression,  is  a  convenient  name  for  that  part  of  the  Verb  which,  in  the 
developed  classical  language,  actually  distinguishes  the  various  Tenses  and 
Moods.  An  analysis  of  the  formative  elements  of  the  Tenses  and  Moods 
is  too  complicated  and  vexed  a  problem  for  an  elementary  grammar. 


56 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


3.  In  the  Passive  Voice  the  Perfect,  Pluperfect,  and  Fu- 
ture Perfect  Tenses  are  formed  by  adding  forms  of  sum  to 
the  Perfect  Passive  Participle.  Thus  amatus  sum,  /  have 
leen  loved ;  amatus  eram,  I  had  been  loved. 

All  Participles  and  Participial  forms  of  the  Yerb  are 
declined  like  Adjectives.  Thus  : 

amans,  genitive  amantis  (116) 
amaturus,  -a,  -um  (sum) 
amatus,  -a,  -um  (sum) 
amandus,  -a,  -um  (sum) 

III.  PERSONAL  ENDINGS 

168  The  Personal  Endings  denote  Voice,  Person,  and 
Number.    They  are  given  in  the  following  table : 


ACTIVE 

PASSIVE 

Ind.  &  Sub. 

Imperative 

Ind.  &  Sub. 

Imperative 

Person 

Sing. 

Plur. 

Sing. 

Plural 

Sing. 

PL 

Sing. 

Plural 

First 

-m,  -o 

-mus 

not  used 

not  used 

-r 

-mur 

not  used 

not  used 

Second 

-s 

-tis 

—  ,  -to 

-te,  -tote 

-ris,  -re 

-mini 

-re,  -tor 

-mini 

Third 

-t 

-nt 

-to 

-nto 

-tur 

-ntur 

-tor 

-ntor 

The  Endings  for  the  Imperative  are  given  combined  with 
the  Tense  and  Mood  Sign,  where  it  occurs. 

169  The  Perfect  Indicative  Active  is  formed  as  follows  : 


Singular 

Plural 

First  Person 
Second  Person 
Third  Person 

-I 
-istl 
-it 

-imus 
-istis 
-ernnt,  -ere 

VERBS  57 

THE  FOUR  REGULAR  CONJUGATIONS 

170  The   four  Conjugations   are  known   apart  by 
the   first   vowel   in   the    ending   of  the  Pres- 
ent Infinitive  Active. 

Infinitive  Ending  Examples 

First  Conjugation,  in  a  -are  amare,  to  love 

Second  Conjugation,  in  e  -ere  monere,  to  advise 

Third  Conjugation,  in  e  -ere  regere,  to  rule 

Fourth  Conjugation,  in  I  -Ire  audlre,  to  hear 

171  The  Principal  Parts  are  single  forms  chosen  to 
show  the  three  Stems  from  which  all  forms  of 
the  Verb  may  be  made  by  adding  the  proper 
endings.     The  Principal  Parts  are  the  Present 
Indicative,  Present  Infinitive,  Perfect  Indica- 
tive, and  Perfect  Participle.     Thus  : 


Pres.  Ind. 

Pres.  Inf. 

Perf.  Ind. 

Perf.  Part. 

amo 

amare 

amavi 

amatus 

moneo 

monere 

monui 

monitus 

rego 
audio 

regere 
audlre 

rexi 
audivl 

rectus 

auditus 

Notice  that  the  Present  Indicative  is  given  merely  to 
show  the  first  form  occurring  in  the  Yerb — so  to  speak,  the 
name  of  the  Yerb. 

The  Present  Infinitive  shows  the  Present  Stem. 

The  Perfect  Indicative  shows  the  Perfect  Stem. 

The  Perfect  Participle  shows  the  Participial  Stem. 

The  Present  System  includes  all  parts  of  the  Yerb  formed 
on  the  Present  Stem,  the  Perfect  System  includes  all  parts 
formed  on  the  Perfect  Stem,  and  the  Participial  System  all 
parts  formed  on  the  Participial  Stem. 


58 


172 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 
SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  REGULAR  VERB 


. 

b 

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VERBS 
SYNOPSIS  OF   THE  REGULAR  VERB 


59 


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60 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


THE  IRREGULAR   VERB  SUM 

173  As  sum,  I  am,  has  to  be  used  in  the  conjuga- 
tion of  all  the  regular  verbs,  it  is  given  first. 


PRES.  IND. 
sum 


PRINCIPAL   PARTS 

PRES.  INF. 
esse 

INDICATIVE 


PERF.  IND. 
ful 


SINGULAR 

sum,  I  am 

es,  thou  art 
est,  he  is 


eram,  I  was 

eras,  thou  wast 
erat,  he  was 


ero,  /  shall  be 
eris,  thou  wilt  be 
erit,  he  will  be 


PRESENT 

PLURAL 
sumus,  we  are 
estis,  you  are 
sunt,  they  are 

IMPERFECT 

eramus,  we  were 
eratis,  you  were 
erant,  they  were 

FUTURE 

erimus,  we  shall  be 
eritis,  you  will  be 
erunt,  they  will  be 


PERFECT 

fui,  I  have  been,  I  was  f uimus,  we  have  been,  we  were 

fuisti,  thou  hast  been,  thou  wast      fuistis,  you  have  been,  you  were 


fuit,  he  has  been,  he  was 


f  ueram,  I  had  been 
fueras,  thou  hadst  been 
fuerat,  he  had  been 


f  tierunt, 

fuere, 


(.  they  have  been,  they  were 


PLUPERFECT 

f uer«amus,  we  had  been 
f  ueratis,  you  had  been 
fuerant,  they  had  been 


FUTURE  PERFECT 

f uero,  /  shall  have  been  fuerimus,  we  shall  have  been 

fueris,  thou  wilt  have  been  fueritis,  you  will  have  been 

fuerit,  he  will  have  been  fuerint,  they  will  have  been 


VERBS 


61 


SUBJUNCTIVE 


SINGULAR 

sim,  I  may  be 
sis,  thou  mayst  be 
sit,  he  may  be 


essem,  /  should  be 
esses,  thou  wouldst  be 
esset,  lie  would  be 


f uerim,  /  may  have  been 
fueris,  thou  mayst  have  been 
fuerit,  he  may  have  been 


PRESENT 

PLURAL 

sim  us,  we  may  be 
sitis,  you  may  be 
slut,  they  may  be 

IMPERFECT 

essemus,  we  should  be 
essetis,  you  would  be 
essent,  they  would  be 

PERFECT 

fuerimus,  we  may  have  been 
fueritis,  you  may  have  been 
fuerint,  they  may  have  been 


PLUPERFECT 


f uissem,  /  should  have  been 
fuisses,  thou  wouldst  have  been 
fuisset,  he  would  have  been 


fuissemus,  we  should  have  been 
fuissetis,  you  would  have  been 
fuissent,  they  would  have  been 


IMPERATIVE 


Pres.  es,  be  thou 
Put.  esto,  thou  shalt  be 
esto,  he  shall  be 


este,  be  ye 
estote,  ye  shall  be 
sunto,  they  shall  I 


INFINITIVE 


PARTICIPLE 


Pres.  esse,  to  be 
Perf.  fuisse,  to  have  been 
Fut.  futurus  esse  or  fore,  to  be 
about  to  be 


Fut.  futurus,  about  to  be 


62  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

FIRST   CONJUGATION 
174 

Active  Voice. — amo,  /  love 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS 

PRES.  IND.  PRES.  INF.  PERF.  IND.  PERF.  PASS.  PART. 

amo  amare  amavi  amatus 

INDICATIVE 


PRESENT 

SINGULAR  PLURAL 

amo,  Hove  amamus,  we  love 

amas,  you  love  amatis,  you  love 

amat,  he  loves  amant,  they  love 

IMPERFECT 

amabam,  /  was  loving  amabamus,  we  were  loving 

am  abas,  you  were  loving  am  abatis,  you  were  loving 

amabat,  he  was  loving  amabant,  they  were  loving 

FUTURE 

amabo,  /  shall  love  amabimus,  we  shall  love 

amabis,  you  will  love  amabitis,  you  will  love 

amabit,  he  will  love  amabunt,  they  will  love 

PERFECT 

amavi,  I  have  loved,  I  loved  amavimus,  we  have  loved,  we  loved 

amavisti,  you  have  loved,  you          amavistis,  you  have  loved,  you  loved 

loved 

amavit,  he  has  loved,  he  loved         amaverunt,  or  -ere,  they  have  loved, 

they  loved 

PLUPERFECT 

amaveram,  /  had  loved  amaveramus,  we  had  loved 

amaveras,  you  had  loved  amaveratis,  you  had  loved 

amaverat,  he  had  loved  amaverant,  they  had  loved 

FUTURE  PERFECT 

amavero,  I  shall  have  loved  amaverimus,  we  shall  have  loved 

amaveris,  you  will  have  loved         amaveritis,  you  will  have  loved 
amaverit,  he  will  have  loved  amaverint,  they  will  have  loved 


VERBS 


63 


SUBJUNCTIVE 


SINGULAR 

am  em,  /  may  love 
ames,  you  may  love 
arnet,  Tie  may  love 

amarem,  /  should  love 
amares,  you  would  love 
amaret,  he  would  love 


PRESENT 

PLURAL 

amemns,  we  may  love 
ametis,  you  may  love 
ament,  they  may  love 

IMPERFECT 

amaremus,  we  should  love 
amaretis,  you  would  love 
amarent,  they  would  love 


PERFECT 

amaverim,  I  may  have  loved  amaverimus,  we  may  have  loved 

amaveris,  you  may  have  loved         amaveritis,  you  may  have  loved 
amaverit,  he  may  have  loved  amaverint,  they  may  have  loved 

PLUPERFECT 

amavissem,  I  should  have  loved      amavissemus,  we  should  have  loved 
amavisses,  you  would  have  loved     amavissetis,  you  would  have  loved 
amavisset,  he  would  have  loved        amavissent,  they  would  have  loved 


IMPERATIVE 


Pres.  am  a,  love  thou 
Put.  amato,  thou  shalt  love 
amato,  he  shall  love 


am  ate,  love  ye 
amatote,  ye  shall  love 
am  an  to,  they  shall  love 


INFINITIVE 


PARTICIPLE 


Pres.  amare,  to  love 
Perf.  amavisse,  to  have  loved 
Fut.   amaturus  esse,  to  be  about 
to  love 


Pres.  amans,  loving 

Fut.  amaturus,  about  to  love 


GERUND 


SUPINE 


Gen.  amandl,  of  loving 

Dat.  amando,  for  loving 

Ace.  amanduin,  loving 

Abl.  amando,  by  loving 


Ace.  amatum,  to  love 

Abl.  amatii,  to  love,  in  the  loving 


175 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 

FIRST   CONJUGATION 

Passive  Voice. — amor,  /  am  loved 
PRINCIPAL  PARTS 


PRES.  IND. 
amor 


PRES.  INF. 
amarl 

INDICATIVE 


PERF.  IND. 
a  in  at  us  sum 


SINGULAR 
amor 

amaris,  or  -re 
amatur 


a  ma  bar 

amabaris,  or  -re 
amabatur 


PRESENT 
/  am  loved 


IMPERFECT 
/  was  loved 


PLURAL 

araamur 
a  in  am  in! 
amantur 


amabamur 
am  aba  mi  m 
amabantur 


FUTURE 
/  shall  be  loved 

amabor  amabimur 

amaberis,  or  -re  amabimini 

amabitnr  amabuntnr 

PERFECT 

/  have  been  loved  or  I  was  loved 

amatus  sum  amati  snmus 

amatus  es  amati  estis 

amatus  est  amati  sunt 


amatus  eram 
amatus  eras 
amatus  erat 


amatus  ero 
amatus  eris 
amatus  erit 


PLUPERFECT 
/  had  been  loved 


FUTURE  PERFECT 
/  shall  have  been  loved 


amati  eram  us 
amati  eriitis 
amati  erant 


amati  erimus 
amati  eritis 
amati  erunt 


VERBS 


65 


SUBJUNCTIVE 


PRESENT 

/  may  be  loved 

SINGULAR 

amer 
ameris,  or  -re 
ametur 

PLURAL 

amemur 
amemini 
amentur 

IMPERFECT 

amarer 
amareris,  or 
amaretur 

I  should  be  loved 
-re 

amaremur 
amaremini 
amarentur 

PERFECT 

amatus  sim 
amatus  Sis 
amatus  sit 

I  may  have  been  loved 

amati  sunns 
amati  sltis 
amati  sint 

PLUPERFECT 

I  should  have  been  loved 
amatus  essem 
amatus  esses 
amatus  esset 

amati  essemns 
amati  essetis 
amati  essent 

IMPERATIVE 


Pres.  am  are,  be  thou  loved 
Fut.  amator,  thou  shalt  be  loved 
amator,  he  shall  be  loved 


amamini,  be  ye  loved 
amantor,  they  shall  be  loved 


INFINITIVE 


PARTICIPLE 


Pres.  a  marl,  to  be  loved 

Perf.  amatus  esse,  to  have  been 

loved 
Fut.  amatum  TrI,  to  be  about  to 

be  loved 


Perfect.        amatus,  loved 

Gerundive,  amandus,  to  be  loved, 
deserving  to  be  loved 


66 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


176 


PRES.  IND. 
moneo 


SECOND   CONJUGATION 

Active  Voice.— moneo,  /  advise 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS 

PRES.  INF.  PERF.  IND.  PERF.  PASS.  PART. 

monere  monui  monitus 

INDICATIVE 


SINGULAR 

moneo 
mones 
monet 


monebam 

monebas 
monebat 


monebo 
monebis 
monebit 


monui 

monuistl 

monuit 


monueram 

monueras 

monuerat 


monuero 
monueris 
monuerit 


PRESENT 

/  advise  PLURAL 

monemus 
monetis 
monent 
IMPERFECT 
/  was  advising,  or  /  advised 

monebamus 
monebatis 
monebant 
FUTURE 
I  shall  advise 

monebimus 
monebitis 
monebunt 
PERFECT 
/  have  advised,  or  /  advised 

monuimus 
monuistis 
monuerunt,  or  -ere 


PLUPERFECT 
/  had  advised 


FUTURE  PERFECT 
/  shall  have  advised 


monueramus 

monueratis 
monuerant 


monuerinms 

monueritis 

monuerint 


VERBS 


67 


SUBJUNCTIVE 


SINGULAR 

moneam 

moneas 

moneat 


monerem 

moneres 

moneret 


monuerim 

monueris 

monuerit 

monuissem 

monuisses 

monuisset 


PRESENT 
I  may  advise 


IMPERFECT 
/  should  advise 


PERFECT 
I  may  have  advised 


PLUPERFECT 
I  should  have  advised 


PLURAL 

moneamus 

moneatis 
moneant 


moneremus 

moneretis 
monerent 

monuerimus 

monueritis 

monuerint 


monuissemus 

monuissetis 

monuissent 


IMPERATIVE 


Pres.  mone,  advise  thou 
Put.   moneto,  thou  shalt  advise 
moneto,  he  shall  advise 


monete,  advise  ye 
monetote,  ye  shall  advise 
monento,  they  shall  advise 


INFINITIVE 


PARTICIPLE 


Pres.  monere,  to  advise 
Perf.  monuisse,  to  have  advised 
Fut.   moniturus  esse,  to  be  about 
to  advise 


Pres.  monens,  advising 

Fut.   moniturus,  about  to  advise 


GERUND 


SUPINE 


Gen.  monendi,  of  advising 

Dot.  monendo,  for  advisiny 

Ace.  monendum,  advising 

Abl.  monendo,  by  advising 


Ace.  monitum,  to  advise 

A  bl.  monitu,  to  advise,  in  the  advising 


68 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


177 


SECOND   CONJUGATION 
Passive  Voice. — moneor,  /  am  advised 


PRES.  IND. 
moneor 


PRINCIPAL  PARTS 

PRES.  INF. 
moneri 

INDICATIVE 


PERF.  IND. 
inonitus  sum 


SINGULAR 

moneor 
moneris,  or 
monetur 


re 


monebar 
monebaris,  or  -re 
monebatur 


PRESENT 
/  am  advised 


IMPERFECT 
/  was  advised 


PLURAL 
monemur 
moneniim 
monentur 


monebamur 
monebamini 
monebantur 


FUTURE 

I  shall  be  advised 

monebor  monebimur 

moneberis,  or  -re  monebiminl 

monebitur  monebuntur 

PERFECT 
JT  have  been  advised,  I  was  advised 


monitus  sum 
monitus  es 
monitus  est 


monitus  eram 
monitus  eras 
monitus  erat 


PLUPERFECT 
/  had  been  advised 


moniti  sumus 
moniti  estis 
moniti  sunt 


moniti  erjimus 
moniti  eratis 
moniti  erant 


FUTURE  PERFECT 
I  shall  have  been  advised 


monitus  ero 
monitus  eris 
monitus  erit 


moniti  erimus 
moniti  eritis 
moniti  erunt 


VERBS 


69 


SUBJUNCTIVE 


PRESENT 
/  may  be  advised 

SINGULAR  PLURAL 

monear  moneamur 

monearis,  or  -re  raoneamini 

moneatur  moneantur 

IMPERFECT 

/  should  be  advised 

monerer  moneremur 

monereris,  or  -re  moneremim 

moneretur  inonerentur 

PERFECT 

I  may  have  been  advised 

monitus  Sim  monitl  sTinus 

monitus  sis  monitl  sltis 

monitus  sit  monitl  sint 

PLUPERFECT 
I  should  have  been  advised 

monitus  essem  monitl  essemus 

monitus  esses  monitl  essetis 

monitus  esset  monitl  essent 


IMPERATIVE 


Pres.  monere,  be  thou  advised  monemini,  be  ye  advised 

Fut.    monetor,  thou  shall  be  ad- 
vised 
monetor,  he  shall  be  advised     monentor,  they  shall  be  advised 


INFINITIVE 


PARTICIPLE 


Pres.  moneri,  to  be  advised 

Perf.   monitus  6SS6,  to  have  been 

advised 
Fut.    monitum  Irl,  to  be  about  to 

be  advised 


Perfect.        monitus,  advised 
Gerundive,  monendus,  to  be  ad- 
vised, deserving  to 
be  advised 


6 


TO 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


178 


PRES.  IND. 
rego 


THIED   CONJUGATION 

Active  Voice.— rego,  /  rule 
PRINCIPAL   PARTS 

PRES.  INF.  PERF.  IND.  PERF.  PASS.  PART. 

regere  rexi  rectus 

INDICATIVE 


SINGULAR 

rego 
regis 
regit 


regebam 

regebas 
regebat 


regam 

reges 
reget 


rexi 

rexistl 

rexit 


rexeram 

rexeras 

rexerat 


rexero 
rexeris 
rexerit 


PRESENT 
1  rule 


IMPERFECT 
/  was  ruling,  or  /  ruled 


FUTURE 
I  shall  rule 


PERFECT 
/  have  ruled,  or  I  ruled 


PLUPERFECT 
/  had  ruled 


FUTURE  PERFECT 
/  shall  have  ruled 


PLURAL 

regiinus 

regitis 

regunt 


regebamus 

regebatis 

regebant 


regemus 

regetis 
regent 


reximus 
rexistis 
rexerunt,  or  -ere 


rexeramus 

rexeratis 

rexerant 


rexerimus 

rexeritis 

rexerint 


VERBS 


71 


SUBJUNCTIVE 


PRESENT 

—  . 

SINGULAR 

1  may  rule 

PLURAL 

regam 

regamus 

regas 

regatis 

regat 

regant 

IMPERFECT 

1  should  rule 

regerem 

regeremus 

regeres 

regeretis 

regeret 

regerent 

PERFECT 

I  may  have  ruled 

rexerim 

rexerimus 

rexeris 

rexeritis 

rexerit 

rexerint 

PLUPERFECT 

/  should  have  ruled 

rexissem 

rexissemus 

rexisses 

rexissetis 

rexisset 

rexissent 

IMPERATIVE 


Pres.  rege,  rule  thou 
Fut.  regito,  thou  shall  ru 
regito,  he  shall  rule 


regite,  rule  ye 
regitote,  ye  shall  rule 
regunto,  they  shall  rule 


INFINITIVE 


PARTICIPLE 


Pres.  regere,  to  rule 
Perf.  rexisse,  to  have  ruled 
Fut.   recturus  esse,  to  be  about 
to  rule 


Pres.  regens, 

Fut.   recturus,  about  to  rule 


GERUND 


SUPINE 


Gen.  regendi,  of  ruling 
Dat.  regendo,  for  ruling 
Ace.  regeiidum,  ruling 
Abl.   regendo,  by  ruling 


Ace.  rectum,  to  rule 

Abl.  rectu,  to  rule,  in  the  ruling 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


179 


THIRD   CONJUGATION 

Passive  Voice. — regor,  /  am  ruled 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS 


PRES.  IND. 
regor 


PRES.  INF. 
regl 

INDICATIVE 


PERF.  IND. 
rectus  sum 


PRESENT 

SINGULAR  1  am  ruled 

regor 

regeris,  or  -re 
regitur 

IMPERFECT 

/  was  ruled 
regebar 

regebaris,  or  -re 
regebatur 

FUTURE 

/  shall  be  ruled 
regar 

regeris,  or  -re 
regetur 

PERFECT 

I  have  been  ruled,  or  /  was 
rectus  sum 
rectus  es 
rectus  est 

PLUPERFECT 

/  had  been  ruled 
rectus  eram 
rectus  eras 
rectus  erat 


PLURAL 

regimur 
regiminl 
reguntur 


regebamur 
regebamini 
regebantur 


regemur 
regemini 
regentur 

ruled 

rectl  snmus 
recti  estis 
rectl  sunt 


recti  eramus 
rectl  eratis 
recti  erant 


FUTURE  PERFECT 
/  shall  have  been  ruled 


rectus  erd 
rectus  eris 
rectus  erit 


rectl  erimus 
rectT  eritis 
recti  erunt 


VERBS 


SUBJUNCTIVE 


PRESENT 

SINGULAR                1  may  be  ruled 

PLURAL 

regar 
regaris,  or  -re 
regatur 

regain  ur 
regainini 
regantur 

IMPERFECT 

I  should  be  ruled 

regerer 
regereris,  or  -re 
regeretur 

regeremur 
regereminl 
regerentur 

PERFECT 

/  may  have  been  ruled 
rectus  sim 

recti  simns 

rectus  sis 

recti  sltis 

rectus  sit 

recti  sint 

PLUPERFECT 

/  should  have  been  ruled 

rectus  essem 

recti  essemus 

rectus  esses 

recti  essetis 

rectus  esset 

recti  essent 

IMPERATIVE 


Pres.  regere,  be  thou  ruled  regimini,  be  ye  ruled 

Put.    regitor,  thou  shalt  be  ruled 

regitor,  he  shall  be  ruled  reguntor,  they  shall  be  ruled 


INFINITIVE 


PARTICIPLE 


Pres.  regi,  to  be  ruled 

Perf.  rectus  esse,  to  have  been 


Put.    rectum  Irl,  to  be  about  to 
be  ruled 


Perfect.        rectus,  ruled 
Gerundive,  regendus,  to  be  ruled, 

deserving     to    be 

ruled 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


180 


PRES.  IND. 
audio 


FOUKTH   CONJUGATION 
Active  Voice.— audio,  /  hear 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS 

PRES.  INF.  PERF.  IND. 

audire  audivl 

INDICATIVE 


PERF.  PASS.  PART. 
auditus 


SINGULAR 

audio 
audls 
audit 


audiebam 

audiebas 
audiebat 


audiam 

audies 
audiet 


audivl 

audlvisti 

audlvit 


audlveram 

audlveras 
audiverat 


audivero 
audlveris 
audiverit 


PRESENT  TENSE 
/  hear 


PLURAL 
audlmus 

auditis 
audiunt 


IMPERFECT 
I  was  hearing,  or  I  heard 


FUTURE 
I  shall  hear 


PERFECT 
/  have  heard,  or  /  heard 


PLUPERFECT 
/  had  heard 


FUTURE  PERFECT 
/  shall  have  heard 


audiebamus 

audiebatis 

audiebant 


audiemus 

audietis 
audient 


audlvimus 
audlvistis 
audiverunt,  or  -ere 


audiveramus 

audlveratis 
audlverant 


audiverimus 

audlveritis 

audiverint 


VERBS 


SUBJUNCTIVE 


PRESENT 

SINGULAR 

I  may  hear 

PLURAL 

audiam 

audiamus 

audias 

audiatis 

audiat 

audiant 

IMPERFECT 

/  should  hear 

audlrem 

audlremus 

audires 

audlretis 

audlret 

audirent 

PERFECT 

I  may  have  heard 

audiverim 

audlverimus 

audiveris 

audiveritis 

audlverit 

audlverint 

PLUPERFECT 

I  should  have  heard 

audlvissem 

audivissemus 

audivisses 

audlvissetis 

audlvisset 

audlvissent 

IMPERATIVE 


Pres.  audi,  hear  thou 
Fut.  audito,  thou  shall  hear 
audlto,  he  shall  hear 


audite,  hear  ye 
auditote,  ye  shall  hear 
audiunto,  they  shall  hear 


INFINITIVE 


PARTICIPLE 


Pres.  audire,  to  hear 
Perf.  audlvisse,  to  have  heard 
Fut.  auditurus  esse,  to  be  about 
to  hear 


Pres.  audiens,  hearing 

Fut.  auditurus,  about  to  hear 


GERUND 


SUPINE 


Gen.  audiendl,  of  hearing 
Dat.  audiendo,  for  hearing 
Ace.   audiendum,  hearing 
Abl.    audiendo,  by  hearing 


Ace.  auditum,  to  hear 

Abl.  audltu,  to  hear,  in  the  hearing 


76 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


181 


PRES.  IND. 
audior 


FOURTH  CONJUGATION 

Passive  Voice. — audior,  /  am  heard 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS 

PRES.  INF. 

audiri 

INDICATIVE 


PERF.  IND. 
auditus  sum 


SINGULAR 

audior 
audlris,  or 
andltur 


-re 


audiebar 

audiebaris,  or  -re 
audiebatur 


PRESENT 
/  am  heard 


IMPERFECT 
/  was  heard 


PLURAL 
audlmur 
audimini 
audiuntur 


audiebamur 
audiebaminl 
audiebantur 


FUTURE 
/  shall  be  heard 


audiar  audiemur 

audieris,  or  -re  audieminl 

audietur  audientur 

PERFECT 
/  have  been  heard,  or  I  was  heard 


auditus  sum 
auditus  es 
auditus  est 


auditus  eram 
auditus  eras 
auditus  erat 


PLUPERFECT 
/  had  been  heard 


auditus  ero 
auditus  eris 
auditus  erit 


FUTURE  PERFECT 
/  shall  have  been  heard 


audit!  suiiiiiK 
audit!  estis 
audit!  sunt 


audit!  eramus 
audit!  eratis 
audit!  erant 


audit!  erimus 
audit!  eritis 
audit!  erunt 


VERBS 


77 


SUBJUNCTIVE 


PRESENT 

SINGULAR                  I  may  be  heard 
audiar 
audiaris,  or  -re 
audiatur 

PLURAL 

audiamur 
audiamini 
audiantur 

IMPERFECT 

audirer 
audireris,  or 
audiretur 

/  should  be  heard 
-re 

audlremur 
audiremini 
audlrentur 

PERFECT 

auditus  sim 

auditus  sis 
audltus  sit 

/  may  have  been  heard 

audit!  slums 
audit!  sitis 
auditl  sint 

PLUPERFECT 

I  should  have  been  heard 

audltus  essem 
auditus  esses 
auditus  esset 

audit!  essemus 
audit!  esset  is 
audit!  essent 

IMPERATIVE 


Pres.  audire,  be  thou  heard 
Put.   auditor,  thou  shalt  be  heard 
auditor,  he  shall  be  heard 


audiminl,  be  ye  heard 
audiuntor,  they  shall  be  heard 


INFINITIVE 


PARTICIPLE 


Pres.  audiri,  to  be  heard 
Perf.  auditus  esse,  to  have  been 
heard 
Fut.    auditum  Iri,  to  be  about  to 
be  heard 

Perfect.          auditus,  heard 
Gerundive,    audiendus,    to     be 
heard,    deserving 
to  be  heard 

78  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

VERBS  IN  -IO   OF  THE  THIRD  CONJUGATION 

182  Some  Verbs  of  the  Third  Conjugation  end  in  -io. 
In  the  Present  System  (171)  they  take  the  end- 
ings of  the  Fourth  Conjugation  whenever  these 
endings  contain  two  successive  vowels. 

These  verbs  are — 

1.  capio,  take    cupio,  desire  facio,  make    fodio,  dig 
fugio,flee      jacio,  throw  pario,  bear     quatio,  shake 
rapid,  seize   sapid,  know  ;  and  their  compounds. 

2.  Compounds  of  -licio,  lure,  and  -spicio,  look.     Thus 
allicio,  allure,  suspicio,  look  up  at. 

3.  The  deponent  verbs  gradior,  walk ;  morior,  die ;  patior, 
suffer ;  and  their  compounds. 

183  Active  Voice. — capio,  I  take 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS 

PRES.  IND.  PRES.  INF.  PERF.  IND.  PERF.  PASS.  PARTIC. 

capio  capere  cepi  captus 

INDICATIVE 


SINGULAR  PRESENT  PLURAL 

capio,  capis,  capit  capimus,  capitis,  capiunt 

IMPERFECT 
capiebam,  -iebas,  -iebat  capiebamus,  -iebatis,  -iebant 

FUTURE 
capiam,  -ies,  -iet  capiemus,  -ietis,  -lent 

PERFECT 
cepi,  -isti,  -it  cepimus,  -istis,  -erunt  or  -ere 

PLUPERFECT 
ceperam,  -eras,  -erat  ceperamus,  -eratis,  -erant 

FUTURE  PERFECT 
cepero,  -eris,  -erit  ceperiraus,  -eritis,  -erint 


VERBS  79 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


SINGULAR  PRESENT  PLURAL 

capiam,  -ias,  -iat  capiamus,  -iatis,  -iant 

IMPERFECT 
caperera,  -eres,  -eret  caperemus,  -eretis,  -erent 

PERFECT 
ceperim,  -eris,  -erit  ceperimus,  -eritis,  -erint 

PLUPERFECT 
cepissem,  -isses,  -isset  cepissemus,  -issetis,  -issent 


IMPERATIVE 

Pres. 
Put. 

cape 
capito 
capito 

capite 
capitote 
capiunto 

INFINITIVE 

PARTICIPLE 

Pres. 
Perf. 
Put. 

capere 
cepisse 
capturus  esse 

Pres.  capiens 
Fut.    capturus 

GERUND 

SUPINE 

Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Abl. 

capiendi 
capiendo 
capiendum 
capiendo 

Ace.    captum 
Abl.    captu 

80  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

184  Passive  Voice. — capior,  /  am  taken 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS 

PEES.  IND.  PRES.  INF.  PERF.  IND. 

capior  cap!  captus  sum 

INDICATIVE 

SINGULAR  PRESENT  PLURAL 

capior,  caperis,  capitur  capimur,  capimini,  capiuntur 

IMPERFECT 
capiebar,  -iebaris,  -iebatur  capiebamur,  -iebamini,  -iebantur 

FUTURE 
capiar,  -ieris,  -ietur  capiemur,  -iemini,  -ientur 

PERFECT 
captus  sum,  es,  est  capti  sumus,  estis,  sunt 

PLUPERFECT 
captus  eram,  eras,  erat  capti  eramus,  eratis,  erant 

FUTURE  PERFECT 
captus  ero,  eris,  erit  capti  erimus,  eritis,  erunt 

SUBJUNCTIVE 

SINGULAR  PRESENT  PLURAL 

capiar,  -iaris,  -iatur  capiamur,  -iamini,  -iantur 

IMPERFECT 
caperer,  -ereris,  -eretur  caperemur,  -eremini,  -erentur 

PERFECT 
captus  sim,  sis,  sit  capti  simus,  sitis,  sint 

PLUPERFECT 
captus  essem,  esses,  esset  capti  essemus,  essetis,  essent 

IMPERATIVE 

Pres.  cape  re  capimini 

Fut.    capitor 

capitor  capiuntor 


VERBS 


81 


INFINITIVE 


PARTICIPLE 


Pres.  capl 
Per/,  captus  esse 
Fut.    captum  irl 

Perfect.         captus 
Gerundive,  capiendus 

DEPONENT  VERBS 

185  Verbs  having  Passive  forms  with  Active  mean- 
ings are  called  Deponents. 

1.  They  have  also  the  following  Active  forms :  Future  In- 
finitive, Present  and  Future  Participles,  Gerund,  and  Supine. 

2.  The   Gerundive   always,   and  the   Perfect   Participle 
sometimes,  has  the  Passive  meaning. 

186  The  Principal  Parts  of  a  Deponent  Yerb  are  the  Present 
Indicative,  Present  Infinitive,  and  Perfect  Indicative. 

PERF.    IND. 

hortatus  sum,  exhort 
veritus  sum,    fear 
secutus  sum,  follow 
largltus  sum,   bestow 

INDICATIVE 


CONJ. 

PRES.   IND. 

PRES.   INF. 

I. 

hortor 

hortari 

II. 

vereor 

vererl 

III. 

sequor 

sequi 

IV. 

largior 

largiri 

I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

Pres.  hortor 

vereor 

sequor 

largior 

hortaris 

vereris 

sequeris 

larglris 

hortatur 

veretur 

sequitur 

largitur 

hortamur 

veremur 

sequi  mur 

larglmur 

hortamini 

vereminl 

sequimini 

larglminl 

hortantur 

verentur 

sequuntur 

largiuntur 

Impf.  hortabar 

verebar 

sequebar 

largiebar 

Fut.    hortabor 

verebor 

sequar 

largiar 

Per/,   hortatus  sum 

veritus  sum 

secutus  sum 

largltus  sum 

Plup.  hortatus  eram 

veritus  eram 

secutus  eram 

largltus  eram 

F.  P.  hortatus  ero 

veritus  ero 

secutus  ero 

largltus  ero 

82 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


SUBJUNCTIVE 


Pres.  horter 
Impf.  hortarer 
Perf.   hortatus  sim 
Plup.  hortatus  essem 

verear 
vererer 
veritus  sim 
veritus  essem 

sequar 
sequerer 
secutus  sim 
secutus  essem 

largiar 
larglrer 
largitus  sim 
largitus  essem 

IMPERATIVE 


Pres.  hortare 
Put.    hortator 


verere 
veretor 


sequere 
sequitor 


largire 
largltor 


INFINITIVE 


Pres. 
Perf. 
Fut. 

hortari 
hortatus  esse 
hortaturus  esse 

vererl 
veritus  esse 
veriturus  esse 

sequl 
secutus  esse 
secuturus  esse 

larglrl 
largitus  esse 
largiturus  esse 

PARTICIPLE 


Pres.   hortans 

verens 

sequens 

largiens 

Fut.    hortaturus 

veriturus 

secuturus 

largiturus 

Perf.  hortatus 

veritus 

secutus 

largitus 

Oer.     hortandus 

verendus 

sequendus 

largiendus 

GERUND 


hortandl  verendl  sequendl  largiendl 


SUPINE 


hortatum,  -tu        veritum,  -tu        secutum,  -tu       largitum,  -tu 


SEMI-DEPONENT  VERBS 

187  Semi-Deponent  Yerbs  liave  Active  forms  in  the  Present 
System  (171)  and  Passive  Forms  in  the  Perfect  System, 
keeping  their  Active  meaning  throughout. 


VERBS  83 

audeo  audere  ausus  sum,      dare 

gaudeo  gaudere  gavlsus  sum,  rejoice 

soleo  solere  solitus  sum,    ~be  wont 

fido  fidere  fisus  sum,        trust 

PERIPHRASTIC  CONJUGATION 

188  The  Periphrastic  ("  roundabout ")  kind  of  Con- 
jugation is  formed  in  the  Active  by  adding  the 
verb  sum  to  the  Future  Active  Participle,  and 
in  the  Passive  by  adding  sum  to  the  Gerun- 
dive. Thus  amaturus  sum,  I  am  about  to  love] 
amandus  sum,  I  am  to  be  loved. 

Active. — amaturus  sum,  /  am  about  to  love 
INDICATIVE 


Pres.  amaturus  sum  /  am  about  to  love 

Imp.  amaturus  eram  /  was  about  to  love 

Fut.  amaturus  ero  I  shall  be  about  to  love 

Perf.  amaturus  fui  /  have  been  about  to  love 

Plup.  amaturus  fueram  I  had  been  about  to  love 

F.  P.  amaturus  fuero  /  shall  have  been  about  to  love 


SUBJUNCTIVE 


Pres.  amaturus  sim  1  may  be  about  to  love 

Imp.  amaturus  essem  1  should  be  about  to  love 

Perf.  amaturus  f uerim  I  may  have  been  about  to  love 

Plup.  amaturus  f uissem  /  should  have  been  about  to  love 


INFINITIVE 


Pres.       amaturus  esse  to  be  about  to  love 

Perf.       amaturus  fuisse  to  have  been  about  to  love 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


Passive.— amandus  sum,  I  am  to  le  loved 


INDICATIVE 


Pres.  amandus  sum  I  am  to  be  loved,  I  deserve  to  be  loved 

Imp.  amandus  eram  /  was  to  be  loved,  deserved  to  be  loved 

Fut.  amandus  ero  /  shall  deserve  to  be  loved 

Perf.  amandus  f  ui  /  have  deserved  to  be  loved 

Plup,  amandus  fueram  /  had  deserved  to  be  loved 

F.  P.  amandus  f  uero  /  shall  have  deserved  to  be  loved 


SUBJUNCTIVE 


Pres.  amandus  sim 

Imp.  amandus  essem 

Perf.  araandus  fuerim 

Plup.  amandus  fuissem 


/  may  deserve  to  be  loved 
I  should  deserve  to  be  loved 
I  may  have  deserved  to  be  loved 
I  should  have  deserved  to  be  loved 


INFINITIVE 


Pres. 


amandus  esse 
amandus  fuisse 


to  deserve  to  be  loved 

to  have  deserved  to  be  loved 


PECULIAR  FORMS  IN  CONJUGATION 

189  Perfects  in  -avi,  -evi,  -Ivi,  -ovi,  and  kindred  forms  in  the 
Perfect  System,  sometimes  drop  ve,  ve,  or  vi  before  r  or  s. 

Thus :  amasti      =  amavisti  delesti   =  delevisti 

amarunt    =  amaverunt  audisti  =  audlvisti 

amarim     =  amaverim  audisse  =  audivisse 

amassem  =  amavissem  nosti      =  novisti 

190  Notice  the  following  Imperatives  ; 

dico,  say,    has  die  facio,  make,  has  fac 

duco,  lead,  has  due  fero,  bear,     has  fer 

191  In  Future  and  Perfect  Infinitives  esse  is  often  omitted : 
amaturus  (esse),  amatus  (esse). 


VERBS  85 

192  The  endings  -undus  and  -undi,  instead  of  -endus  and  -endl, 
often  occur  in  the   Gerund   and  Gerundive  of  the  Third 
and  Fourth  Conjugations  ;  as  faciundus  for  faciendus. 

CHANGES  OF  STEM  IN  EEGULAR  VERBS 

193  The    four    Conjugations    regularly  form    their 
Principal  Parts  as  follows  (see  166,  170,  171) : 

I.  amo  amare  amavl  amatus,    love 

II.  moneo  monere  monui  monitus,  advise  (in  most  verbs) 

deleo  delere  delevl  deletus,    destroy 

III.  carpo  carpere  carps!  carptus,  pluck  \  (in   consonant 
rego  regere  rexl  rectus,      rule    j      stems) 
acuo  acuere  acul  acutus,  sharpen  (in  vowel  stems) 

IV.  audio  audire  audivi  audltus,   hear 

194  But  other  changes  often  occur  in  the  body  or  in  the  end- 
ing of  the  Stem  in  forming  the  Principal  Parts. 

1.  In  forming   the    Perfect   Stem  notice   the    following 
changes  before  s : 

(1)  b  becomes  p :  scribo,  write  ;  (scrib-si  =)  scrips!. 

(2)  d  or  t  is  lost :          rldeo,  laugh  ;  (rid-sl  =)  risi. 

mitto,  send\  (mitt-Si  =)  misi. 

(3)  c  or  g  becomes  x:  duco,  lead\  (due-si  =)  diixl. 

rego,  rule  ;  (reg-si  = )  rexi. 

195  2.  In  forming  the  Perfect  Stem  the  Present  Stem  is  sometimes 

(1)  Reduplicated  :       curro,  run  ;  cu-curri. 

mordeo,  bite ;  mo-mordi. 
posco,  demand ;  po-posci. 

(2)  Lengthened  :         ago,  do,  try ;  egi. 

edo,  eat ;  edi. 
video,  see ;  vidi. 
venio,  come ;  veni. 

(3)  Left  Unchanged :  solvo,  loose  ;  solvi. 

verto,  turn ;  verti. 


86  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

196  3.  In    forming   the   Participial    Stem    notice  the   following 
changes  before  t : 

(1)  b  becomes  p  :  scribo,  write  ;  (scrib-tus  =)  scriptus. 

(2)  d  or  t  combine  to  make  s  or  ss  : 

video,  see  ;  (vid-tus  =)  visus. 
mitto,  send;  (mitt-tus  =)  missus. 

(3)  g  becomes  c  :  rego,  rule;  (reg-tus  =)  rectus. 

(4)  Sometimes  an  i  develops  : 

moneo,  advise  ;  (mon-tus  =)  monitus. 

197  In  forming  compound  verbs  the  Stem  vowel  of  simple  verbs 
often  changes  as  follows : 

1.  The  stem  vowel  e,  changing  to  e  in  Perfect  Stem,  be- 
comes i  in  Present  Stem  of  compounds  : 

emo  emere  emi  emptus,    buy 

red-imo      red-imere     red-emi      red-emptus,    redeem 

2.  The  stem  vowel  e,  remaining  e  throughout,  becomes  i 
in  Present  and  Perfect  Stems  of  compounds  : 

teneo         tenere          tenui  hold 

re-tineo      re-tinere      re-tinul      re-tentus,      retain 

3.  The  stem  vowel  a,  changing  to  e  in  Perfect  Stem,  be- 
comes i  in  Present  Stem  and  e  in  Participial  Stem  of  com- 
pounds : 

facio          facere         feel  factus,      do 

de-ficio       de-ficere      de-feci       de-fectus,      fail 

4.  The  stem  vowel  a,  remaining  a  throughout,  becomes  i 
in  Present  and  Perfect  Stems  and  e  in  Participial  Stem  of 
compounds : 

rapio         rapere          rapui        raptus,     seize 
e-ripio        e-ripere        e-ripui      e-reptus,     pull  out 


LIST   OP   VERBS 


87 


198 


LIST   OF   VERBS 

The  regular  verbs  in  each  Conjugation  are  most  conveniently 
arranged  in  classes  according  to  the  various  forms  in  which  the 
Perfect  Indicative  Active  ends.  In  the  following  table  the 
leading  Perfect  form  in  each  Conjugation  is  given  in  bold 
type: 


THIRD 

FIRST 

SECOND 

FOURTH 

Consonant 

Vowel 

In  -sco 

-vl 

-vi 

-vi 

-vi 

(-vi) 

-VI 

-ul 

-Ul 

-ul 

-ul 

-Ul 

-ul 

-I 

-I 

-i 

-1 

-1 

-I 

— 

-si 

-SI 

-si 

(-si) 

-si 

The  following  list  includes  only  the  commonly  used  verbs 
of  the  four  regular  Conjugations : 

FIKST   CONJUGATION 

199  Perfect  in  -vi. 

amo  amare  amavi  amatus  love 

So  all  strictly  regular  verbs  of  the  First  Conjugation. 

200  Perfect  in  -ui. 


mico 

micare 

raicui 



glitter 

dimico 

dimicare 

dlmicavi 

(dimicatum) 

fight 

seco 

secare 

secui 

sectus 

cut 

sono 

sonare 

so  mil 

(sonaturus) 

sound 

veto 

vetare 

vetul 

vetitus 

forbid 

201  Perfect  in  -I. 

1.  With  Reduplication : 
do  dare  dedi  datus  give 

The  a  of  the  Stem  is  short,  except  in  das,  da,  dans. 
Compounds  of  do  with  words  of  one  syllable  belong  to  the 


88 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


Third  Conjugation.     See  211.     In  other  compounds  do  does 
not  change. 

sto  stare  steti  stand 

Compounds  of  sto  with  words  of  one  syllable  have  the 
Perfect  in  -stiti  (not  -steti) ;  as  prae-sto,  prae-stiti. 


2.  With  Stem  Vowel  Lengthened  : 


juvo 
lavo 


juvare 
lavare 


JUVl 

lavi 


jutus 
lautus 


help 
wash 


202  Deponents. 

All  are  strictly  regular  like  hortor,  hortari,  hortatus  sum, 
exhort. 

SECOND   CONJUGATION 

203  Perfect  in -vl. 


cieo 

ciere 

civi 

citus 

stir  up 

deleo 

delere 

delevi 

deletus 

destroy 

fleo 

flere 

flevi 

fletus 

weep 

compleo 

complere 

complevi 

completus 

fill  up 

impleo 

implere 

implevi 

impletus 

fulfil 

204  Perfect  in 

-Ul.     So  most 

verbs  of 

the  Second 

Conjugation. 

1.  Principal  Parts  in 

-eo,  -ere. 

-ui,  -itus  : 

arceo 

arcere 

arcui 



check 

coerceo 

coerce  re 

coercul 

coercitus 

hold  in  check 

exerceo 

exercere 

exercui 

exercitus 

practise 

careo 

carere 

carui 

(cariturus) 

lack 

doleo 

dolere 

dolui 

(doliturus) 

grieve 

habeo 

habere 

habul 

habitus 

have 

debeo 

debere 

debui 

debitus 

owe,  ought 

praebeo 

praebere 

praebui 

praebitus 

offer 

jaceo 

jacere 

jacui 

(jaciturus) 

lie 

mereo 

merere 

merui 

rneritus 

deserve 

moneo 

raonere 

monui 

monitus 

advise 

pareo 

parere 

parui 

(pariturus) 

obey 

placeo 

placere 

placui 

(placi  turns) 

please 

taceo 

tacere 

tacui 

(taciturus) 

be  silent 

terreo 

terrere 

terrui 

territus 

frighten 

LIST  OF  VERBS 


Also  the  following,  which  have  no  Participial  Stem  : 


89 


egeo 

egere 

egui 



need 

emineo 

eminere 

eminui 



stand  forth 

horreo 

horrere 

horrui 



bristle 

lateo 

latere 

latui 



lie  hid 

niteo 

nitere 

nitui 



gleam 

pateo 

patere 

patui 



lie  open 

sileo 

silere 

silui 



be  silent 

splendeo 

splendere 

splendui 



gleam 

studeo 

studere 

studui 



desire 

stupeo 

stupere 

stupul 



be  amazed 

timeo 

timere 

tirnui 



fear 

torpeo 

torpere 

torpui 



be  dull 

And 

the  following, 

which  have 

only  the  Present  Stem  : 

frigeo 

frigere 





be  cold 

iramineo 

imrainere 





overhang 

maereo 

maerere 





mourn 

2.  Principal  Parts  in  -eo,  -ere, 

-ul,  -tus  (-sus) 

: 

censeo 

censere 

censui 

census 

rate,  think 

doceo 

docere 

docu! 

doctus 

teach 

misceo 

miscere 

miscui 

mixtus 

mix 

teneo 

tenere 

tenui 



hold 

obtineo 

obtinere 

obtinui 

obtentus 

maintain 

retineo 

retinere 

retinui 

retentus 

retain 

205  Perfect 

in  -si. 

abstergeo 

abstergere 

abstersi 

abstersus 

wipe  off 

ardeo 

ardere 

arsi 

(arsurus) 

burn 

augeo 

augere 

auxi 

auctus 

increase 

fulgeo 

fulgere 

fulsi 



gleam 

haereo 

haerere 

haesi 

(haesurus) 

stick 

indulgeo 

indulgere 

indulsi 



indulge 

jubeo 

jubere 

jussl 

jussus 

order 

luceo 

lucere 

luxl 



be  light 

maneo 

raanere 

mansi 

(raansurus) 

stay 

rideo 

ridere 

rlsi 

(risura) 

laugh 

suadeo 

suadere 

suasi 

(suasura) 

advise 

torque  o 

torque  re 

torsi 

tortus 

twist 

90 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


206  Perfect  in  -I. 

1.  With  Reduplication  : 
mordeo  mordere  momordi 

pendeo  pendere  pependi 

spondeo  spondere  spopondl 


morsus 


sponsus 


2.  With  Stem  Vowel  Lengthened  : 


caveo 

cavere 

cavi                 (cauturi 

faveo 

favere 

favi                 (fautun 

foveo 

fovere 

fovi                 fotus 

moveo 

movere 

movi               motus 

sedeo 

sedere 

sedi                 (sessuru 

video 

videre 

vidi                 visus 

3.  With 

Stem  Unchanged  : 

ferveo 

fervere 

fervi  (ferbul) 

strideo 

stridere 

strldi 

207  Deponents 

and  Semi-Deponents. 

fateor 

fateri 

fassus  sum 

confiteor 

confiterl 

confessus  sum 

liceor 

liceri 

licitus  sum 

polliceor 

polliceri 

pollicitus  sum 

misereor 

misereri 

miseritus  sum 

reor 

rerl 

ratus  sum 

tueor 

tueri 



vereor 

vereri 

veritus  sum 

audeo 

audere 

ausus  sum 

gaudeo 

gaudere 

gavisus  sum 

soleo 

solere 

solitus  sum 

bite 
hang 


boil 
creak 


confess 

confess 

bid,  offer 

promise 

pity 

think 

look  to,  protect 

fear 

dare 

rejoice 

be  accustomed 


THIRD   CONJUGATION 

CONSONANT  STEMS. 
208  Perfect  in  -si. 

1.  Principal  Parts  in  -6,  ere,  -Si,  -tus  : 

carpo  carpere  carps!  carptus 


cingo 
coquo 


cmgere 
coquere 


cinxi 
coxi 


cmctus 
coctus 


pluck 

gird 

cook 


LIST  OF  VERBS 


91 


209 


dico 

dlcere 

dlxi 

dictus 

say 

duco 

ducere 

duxi 

ductus 

lead 

fingo 

fingere 

finxl 

flctus 

fashion 

gero 

gerere 

gessi 

gestus 

carry 

jungo 

jungere 

junxi 

junctus 

join 

rego 

regere 

rexi 

rectus 

rule 

scribo 

scribere 

scrlpsl 

scriptus 

write 

stringo 

stringere 

strinxi 

strlctus 

bind 

tego 

tegere 

texi 

tectus 

cover 

traho 

trahere 

traxi 

tractus 

draw 

uro 

urere 

USSl 

ustus 

burn 

veho 

vehere 

vexi 

vectus 

carry 

vivo 

vivere 

V1X1 

(victum) 

live 

2.  Principal  Parts  in 

-6,  -ere,  -si,  -sus  : 

cedo 

cedere 

cessi 

(cessum) 

yield 

claudo 

claudere 

clausi 

clausus 

shut 

divide 

dividere 

divisl 

divlsus 

divide 

flgo 

figere 

fix! 

fixus 

fasten 

flecto 

flectere 

flexl 

flexus 

bend 

laedo 

laedere 

laesi 

laesus 

hurt 

ludo 

ludere 

lusi 

(lusum) 

play 

mergo 

mergere 

mersi 

mersus 

sink 

mitto 

mittere 

misi 

missus 

send 

premo 

preraere 

press! 

pressus 

press 

rado 

radere 

rasi 

rasus 

shave 

spargo 

spargere 

spars! 

sparsus 

scatter 

Perfect  in 

-vl  : 

arcesso 

arcessere 

arcessivl 

arcessitus 

summon 

cerno 

cernere 





see 

decerno 

decernere 

decrevi 

decretus 

decide 

peto 

petere 

petivi  (petil) 

petltus 

seek,  beg 

pono 

ponere 

posui 

positus 

place 

quaero 

quaerere 

quaesivi 

quaesitus 

seek,  ask 

acquire 

acquirers 

acqulsivl 

acqulsltus 

acquire 

sero 

serere 

sevi 

satus 

sow 

sino 

sinere 

S1V1 

situs 

let 

desino 

desinere 

desiT 

desitus 

cease 

sperno 

spemere 

sprevi 

spretus 

scorn 

stern  o 

sternere 

stravi 

stratus 

strew 

prosterno 

prosternere 

prostravi 

prostratus 

overthrow 

tero 

terere 

trivi 

tritus 

rub 

92 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


210  Perfect  in  -ul  : 


alo 
colo 

alere 
colere 

alui 
colul 

altus  (alitus)   nourish 
cultus              cultivate 

incolo 

incolere 

incolui 

inhabit 

consero 
consulo 

conserere 
consulere 

coiiserui 
consului 

consertus        join 
consultus        consult 

desero 

deserere 

deserui 

desertus           desert 

fremo 

fremere 

fremui 

roar 

gemo 
gigno 
incumbo 

gemere 
gignere 
incumbere 

genmi 
genui 
incubui 

groan 
genitus             bring  forth 
incubitus         lean  on 

texo 

texere 

texul 

textus             weave 

tremo 

tremere 

tremui 

tremble 

211   Perfect  in  -I. 

1.  With  Keduplication  : 

abdo  abdere  abdidi 

credo  credere  credidi 

reddo  reddere  reddidi 

and  all  other  compounds  of  do,  give, 


abditus     put  away,  hide 
creditus    put  faith  in,  believe 
redditus    give  back,  restore 
with  monosyllabic  words. 


cado 

cadere 

cecidl 

(casurus) 

fall 

occido 

occidere 

occidi 

occasus 

go  dow 

caedo 

caedere 

cecidl 

caesus 

cut 

occido 

occidere 

occidi 

occisus 

cut  doi 

cano 

canere 

cecim 



sing 

circumsisto 

circumsistere 

circumsteti 



surrou'i 

consisto 

consistere 

constiti 



take  a 

curro 

currere 

cucurri 

(cursura) 

run 

fallo 

fallere 

fefelli 

(falsus) 

deceive 

parco 

parcere 

peperci 

(parsurus) 

spare 

pello 

pellere 

pepuli 

pulsus 

drive 

resisto 

resistere 

restiti 



resist 

tango 

tangere 

tetigi 

tactus 

touch 

tendo 

tendere 

tetendi 

tentus 

stretch 

Also  the  following,  which  have  lost  their  original  redupli- 
cation : 


findo 

findere 

fidi 

fissus 

split 

percello 

percellere 

perculi 

perculsus 

strike  down 

scindo 

scindere 

scidi 

scissus 

tear  apart 

tollo 

tollere 

(sustuli) 

(sublatus) 

bear  of,  lift 

LIST  OF  VERBS 


93 


2.  With  Stem  Vowel  Lengthened 


ago                      agere 

eg! 

actus 

drive,  do 

cogo                 cogere 

coeg! 

coactus 

compel 

perago             peragere 

pereg! 

peractus 

finish 

subigo             subigere 

subeg! 

subactus 

subdue 

edo                      edere,  esse 

ed! 

esus 

eat 

emo                    emere 

em! 

emptus 

take,  buy 

coemo             coemere 

coem! 

coemptus 

buy  up 

demo               demere 

dempsi 

demptus 

take  away 

dirimo             dirimere 

diremi 

diremptus 

destroy 

redimo            redimere 

redemi 

redemptus 

buy  back 

sumo               sumere 

sumps! 

sumptus 

take  up 

frango                frangere 

freg! 

fractus 

break 

fundo                 fundere 

fud! 

fusus 

pour 

lego                    legere 

leg! 

lectus 

gather,  read 

colligo             colligere 

colleg! 

collectus 

collect 

deligo             deligere 

deleg! 

delectus 

choose 

diligo              dlligere 

dllex! 

dllectus 

love 

intellego         intellegere 

intellex! 

intellectus 

understand 

neglego           neglegere 

neglex! 

neglectus 

neglect 

relinquo             relinquere 

rel!qu! 

rellctus 

leave 

rumpo                 rumpere 

rup! 

ruptus 

break,  burst 

vinco                  vincere 

vie! 

victus 

conquer 

3.  With  Stem  Unchanged  : 

accendo              accendere 

accend! 

accensus 

kindle 

defendd              defendere 

defend! 

defensus 

defend 

pando                 pandere 

pand! 

passus 

spread 

prehendo            prehendere 

prehend! 

prehensus 

seize 

scando                scandere 





climb 

ascendo           ascendere 

ascend! 

(ascensum) 

climb  up 

solvo                   solvere 

solv! 

solutus 

loose 

vello                   vellere 

veil! 

vulsus 

pluck 

verro                   verrere 

verr! 

versus 

sweep 

verto                   vertere 

vert! 

versus 

turn 

volvo                   volvere 

volv! 

volutus 

roll 

212  Present  System  only  : 

ango                   angere 





choke 

claudo                 claudere 



limp 

lambo                  lambere 





lick 

vergo                  vergere 





incline,  lie 

LATIN  GRAMMAR 


213  VOWEL  STEMS. 

1.  Present  Stems  in 


-u  : 


acuo 

acuere 

acui 



sharpen 

arguo 

arguere 

argui 



accuse 

fluo 

fluere 

flux! 



flow 

imbuo 

imbuere 

imbui 

imbutus 

imbue 

mduo 

induere 

indui 

indutus 

put  on 

luo 

luere 

lui 



pay,  atone  for 

polluo 

polluere 

pollul 

pollutus 

defile 

metuo 

metuere 

metui 



fear 

minuo 

rninuere 

minui 

minutus 

lessen 

ruo 

ruere 

rul 

ruiturus 

fall 

dlruo 

dlruere 

dirui 

dlrutus 

destroy 

obruo 

obruere 

obrui 

obrutus 

overwhelm 

statuo 

statuere 

statui 

statutus 

set,  settle 

constituo 

constituere 

constitui 

constitutes 

determine 

struo 

struere 

struxi 

structus 

build 

tribuo 

tribuere 

tribui 

tributus 

allot 

2.  Present  Stems  in 

-i  (see  182)  : 

aspicio 

aspicere 

aspexi 

aspectus 

look  at 

capio 

capere 

cepi 

captus 

take 

accipio 

accipere 

accepi 

acceptus 

accept 

incipio 

incipere 

incepi 

inceptus 

begin 

conspicio 

conspicere 

conspexi 

conspectus 

behold 

cupio 

cupere 

cupivi 

cupitus 

desire 

facio 

facere 

feel 

factus 

make 

interficio 

interficere 

interfeci 

interfectus 

kill 

and  other  prepositional  compounds  of  facio.  But  -facio  is  in- 
flected without  change  of  its  simple  stems  in  the  compounds 
assuefacio,  accustom,  calefacio,  heat,  patefacio,  open. 


fodio 

fodere 

fodl 

fossus 

dig 

fugio 

fugere 

fugi 

fugiturus 

flee 

effugio 

effugere 

effugi 



escape 

jacio 

jacere 

jeci 

j  act  us 

hurl 

abicio 

abicere 

abjeci 

abjectus 

throw  away 

pario 

parere 

peperi 

partus 

bring  forth 

quatio 

quatere 



quassus 

shake 

concutio 

concutere 

concuss! 

concussus 

shock 

rapio 

rapere 

rapul 

raptus 

seize 

dlripio 

diripere 

dlripui 

direptus 

plunder 

LIST  OF   VERBS 


95 


214  VERBS  IN  -sco.  These  are  called  Inceptive  or  Inchoative 
Verbs,  because  all  but  the  simple  verbs  in  -sco  regularly  de- 
note the  beginning  of  an  action  :  floresco,  begin  to  bloom. 


1.  Simple  Verbs  in  -SCO  : 

consuesco 

consuescere 

consuevi 

consuetus 

accustom  one's 

self 

cresco 

crescere 

crevi 

cretus 

grow 

disco 

discere 

didici 



learn 

nosco 

noscere 

novl 



know 

agnosco 

agnoscere 

agnovi 

agnitus 

recognize 

cognosce 

cognoscere 

cognovi 

cognitus 

recognize 

Ignosco 

ignoscere 

Ignovl 

(Ignotum) 

pardon 

pasco 

pascere 

pa  vi 

pastus 

feed 

posco 

poscere 

poposci 



demand 

quiesco 

quiescere 

quievi 

(quietum) 

be  still 

2.  Derivatives  in  -sco  formed  from  Verbs  and  Adjectives  ; 
such  as  : 


floresco          florescere 
maturesco      maturescere 
and  many  others. 

215  DEPONENTS  : 


florui          blossom  (floreo,  bloom) 
maturui      ripen  (maturus,  ripe) 


adipiscor 

adipiscT 

amplector 

amplecti 

comminiscor 

comminisci 

fruor 

frul 

fungor 

fungi 

gradior 

gradi 

irascor 

irasci 

labor 

lab! 

loquor 

loqul 

morior 

mori 

nanclscor 

nancisci 

nascor 

nasci 

nitor 

niti 

obllviscor 

oblivisci 

paclscor 

pacisci 

patior 

patl 

perpetior 

perpetl 

proficiscor 

proficisci 

adeptus  sum 
araplexus  sum 
commentus  sum 
(fruiturus) 
functus  sum 
gressus  sum 
(iratus) 
lapsus  sum 
locutus  sum 
mortuus  sum 
nanctus  (nactus)  sum 
natus  sum 
nlsus  (nlxus)  sum 
oblitus  sum 
pactus  sum 
passus  sum 
perpessus  sum 
profectus  sum 


attain 

embrace 

invent,  make  up 

enjoy 

perform 

step,  march 

get  angry 

glide,  slip 

talk 

die 

acquire 

be  born 

rest  on,  strive 

forget 

bargain 

suffer 

endure 

set  out 


96 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


queror 

remimscor 

sequor 

ulciscor 

utor 

vescor 


queri 

reminlsci 

sequi 

ulclscl 

fit! 

vescl 


questus  sum 

secutus  sum 
ultus  sum 
usus  sum 


complain 

recollect 

follow 

avenge 

use 

feed 


FOUETH   CONJUGATION 
216  Perfect  in  -vi : 

audio  audire  audlvi  audltus  hear 

So  all  strictly  regular  verbs  of  the  Fourth  Conjugation. 
Perfect  in  -ui : 


217 


apeno 
operio 
salio 


aperire 
operire 
salire 


aperui 
operui 
salui 


apertus 
opertus 


218  Perfect  in -si : 


219 

1.  With  old  Eeduplication  Lost : 

comperio  comperire  comperi  compertus 

reperio  reperlre  repperi  repertus 

2.  With  Stem  Vowel  Lengthened  : 

venio  venire  veni  (ventum) 

advenio  advenire  adveni  (adventum) 

invenio  invenire  invem  inventus 

220  Deponents  are  usually  strictly  regular,  like 
largior  largirl  largitus  sum 

But  the  following  should  be  noticed  : 

assentior  assentiri  assensus  sum 

experior  experiri  expertus  sum 

metior  metlri  mensus  sum 

opperior  opperiri  oppertus  sum 

ordior  ordlri  orsus  sum 

orior  oriri  ortus  sum 


open 
cover 


fulcio 
haurio 

fulcire 
haurire 

fulsi 
hausi 

fultus 
haustus 

support 
draw 

sancio 
sentio 
vincio 

sancire 
sentire 
vincire 

sanxi 
sens! 
vinxi 

sanctus 
sensus 
vinctus 

ratify 
feel 
bind 

Perfect  in 

-I. 

ascertain 
find 

come 

arrive 

find 

bestow 


try 

measure 

await 

begin 

arise 


IRREGULAR  VERBS  97 

IRREGULAR  VERBS 

221  The  Irregular  Verbs  are  sum,  edo,  fero,  volo, 
fio,  eo,  queo  and  their  compounds. 

For  the  conjugation  of  sum  see  173.  Its  compounds  are 
conjugated  in  the  same  way,  excepting  prosum,  profit,  and 
possum,  be  able,  prosum  is  a  compound  of  prod-  (old  form 
of  pro-)  and  sum.  It  keeps  the  d  before  e,  but  loses  it 
elsewhere.  Thus  pro-sum,  prod-es,  prod-est ;  pro-sumus, 
prod-estis,  pro-sunt.  possum  is  a  compound  of  pot-is, 
able,  and  sum. 

222  possum,  be  able. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS 
possum  posse  pot  in  be  able 

INDICATIVE 


SINGULAR 

PLURAL 

Pres. 

possum,  potes,  potest 

possumus,  potestis,  possunt 

Imp. 

poteram 

poteramus 

Fut. 

potero 

poterimus 

Perf. 

potui 

potuimus 

Plup. 

potueram 

potueramus 

P.P. 

potuero 

potuerimus 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


Pres.  possim.  possis,  possit  possimus,  possitis,  possint 

Imp.  possem  possemus 

Perf.  potuerim  potuerimus 

Plup.  potuissem  potuissemus 


INFINITIVE  PARTICIPLE 


Pres.      posse  Pres.     potens 

Perf.     potuisse 


98  LATIN   GRAMMAR 

223  edo,  eat.  PRINCIPAL  PARTS 

edo  edere  edl  esus  eat 

Active  Voice 

INDICATIVE 


SINGULAR 

PLURAL 

Pres. 

edo 

edimus 

edis,  es 

editis,  estis 

edit,  est 

edunt 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


Imp. 

ederem,  essera 
ederes,  esses 
ederet,  esset 

ederemus,  essemus 
ederetis,  essetis 
ederent,  essent 

IMPERATIVE 


Pres.      ede,  es  edite,  este 

Fut.       edito,  esto  editote,  estote 

edito,  esto  edunto 


INFINITIVE  PARTICIPLE 


Pres.  edere,  esse 
Fut.  esurus  esse 
Perf.  edisse 


Pres.     edens 


Fut.      esurus 


GERUND  SUPINE 


edendi 


esura,  -u 


In  the  Passive  Voice  the  following  forms  in  the  Third  Per- 
son Singular  occur  :  Present  Indicative,  editur  or  estur,  and 
Imperfect  Subjunctive,  ederetur  or  essetur. 


IRREGULAR  VERBS 


99 


224  fero,  bear,  carry. 


fero 


PRINCIPAL  PARTS 
ferre  tull  latus 


bear 


Active  Voice 

INDICATIVE 

SINGULAR 

PLURAL 

Pres. 

fero,  fers,  fert 

ferimus,  fertis,  ferunt 

Imp. 

ferebam 

ferebam  us 

Fut. 

feram 

feremus 

Perf. 

tull 

tulimus 

Plup. 

tuleram 

tuleramus 

P.P. 

tulero 

tulerimus 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


Pres.      feram 
Imp.      ferre  m 
Perf.      tulerim 
Plup.      tulissem 

feramus 
ferremus 
tulerimus 
tulissemus 

IMPERATIVE 


Pres. 

fer 

ferte 

Fut. 

ferto 

fertote 

ferto 

ferunto 

INFINITIVE 


PARTICIPLE 


Pres. 

ferre 

Pres. 

ferens 

Perf. 

tulisse 

Fut. 

laturus  esse 

Fut. 

laturus 

GERUND 


SUPINE 


Gen. 

ferendi 

Dat. 

ferendo 

Ace. 

ferendum 

Ace.     latum 

All. 

ferendo 

AU.     latu 

100  LATIN   GRAMMAR 

225  Passive    Voice 

feror  ferri  latus  sum  be  borne 

INDICATIVE 


SINGULAR  PLURAL 

Pres.  feror,  ferris,  fertur  ferimur,  ferimini.  feruntur 

Imp.  ferebar  ferebamur 

Fut.  ferar  feremur 

Per/,  latus  sum  lati  sumus 

Plup.  latus  eram  lati  eramus 

F.  P.  latus  ero  lati  erimus 


SUBJUNCTIVE 


Pres. 

ferar 

feraraur 

Imp. 

ferrer 

ferremur 

Perf. 

latus  sim 

lati  simus 

Plup. 

latus  essem 

lati  essem  us 

IMPERATIVE 


Pres.      ferre  ferimini 

Fut.      fertor 

fertor  feruntor 


INFINITIVE  PARTICIPLE 


Pres.      ferri 
Perf.      latus  esse 
Fut.       latum  iri 


Perfect.  latus 

Gerundive,     ferendus 


226  In  compounds  notice  that  fero  preserves  its  simple  form  with- 
out change,  and  that  the  preposition  with  which  it  is  com- 
pounded undergoes  various  changes  : 

affero  afferre  attuli  allatus  carry  to 

aufero  auferre  afostuli  ablatus  carry  away 

confero  conferre  contuli  collatus  compare 

differo  differre  distuli  dilatus  put  off 

effero  efferre  extuli  elatus  carry  off 

infero  inferre  intuli  illatus  bring  against 

offero  offerre  obtuli  oblatus  present 

refero  referre  rettuli  relatus  bring  back 

[tollo]  [tollere]  sustuli  sublatus  lift,  take  away 


:-'.    101 


227  volo,  nolo,  malo. 

volo 
nolo 
malo 


PRINCIPAL  PARTS 

velle  volul 

nolle  nolul 

malic  malu! 

INDICATIVE 


be  willing 
be  unwilling 
prefer 


Pres. 

volo 

nolo 

malo 

vis 

non  vis 

mavis 

vult 

non  vult 

mavult 

volumus 

nolumus 

malumus 

vultis 

non  vultis 

mavultis 

volunt 

nolunt 

malunt 

Imp. 

volebam 

nolobam 

malebam 

Fut. 

volam 

nolam 

malam 

Perf. 

volul 

nolul 

malui 

Plup. 

volueram 

nolueram 

malueram 

P.P. 

voluero 

noluero 

maluero 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


Pres.      velim,  -Is,  -it,  etc. 

nolim 

malim 

Imp.      vellem,  -es,  -et,  etc. 

nollem 

mallem 

Perf.      voluerim 

noluerim 

maluerim 

Plup.     voluissem 

nolaissem 

maluissem 

IMPERATIVE 


Pres. 
Fut. 


noli  nolite 

nollto        nolltote 
nollto        nolunto 


INFINITIVE 


Pres. 

Perf. 

velle 
voluisse 

nolle 
noluisse 

malle 
maluisse 

PARTICIPLE 


Pres.      volens 


[nolens] 


nolo  is  compounded  of  non,  not,  and  volo  ;   malo   of 
magis,  more,  and  volo, 


102  J^A™^  QR&MMAR 

228  fio,  "become,  ~be  made. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS 
fio  fieri  factus  sum  become,  be  made 

INDICATIVE 


SINGULAR 

PLURAL 

Pres. 

fio,  f  Is,  fit 

flmus,  f  Itis,  f  lunt 

Imp. 

flebam 

flebamus 

Fut. 

flam 

flemus 

Perf. 

factus  sum 

factl  sumus 

Plup. 

factus  eram 

fact!  eramus 

F.  P. 

factus  ero 

factl  erimus 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


Pres.  flam  flamus 

Imp.  fierem  fieremus 

Perf.  factus  sim  factl  slmus 

Plup.  factus  essem  factl  essemus 


IMPERATIVE 


Pres.      fl  flte 


INFINITIVE  PARTICIPLE 


Pres.      fieri 
Perf.      factus  esse 
Fut.       factum  irl 


Perfect.        factus 
Gerundive,  faciendus 


IRREGULAR  VERBS 


103 


229  eo,  go. 


PRINCIPAL  PARTS 
eo  Ire  Ivi  ituin 

INDICATIVE 


SINGULAR 

PLURAL 

Pres. 
Imp. 
Put. 

eo,  is,  it 
ibam 
ibo 

imus,  itis,  eunt 
ibamus 
ibimus 

Perf. 
Plup. 
P.P. 

ivl  (ii) 
iverara  (ieram) 
ivero  (iero) 

ivimus  (iimus) 
iveramus  (ieramus) 
iverimus  (ierimus) 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


Pres.  earn 

Imp.  irem 

Perf.  iverim  (ierim) 

Plup.  ivissem  (iissem,  issem) 


eamus 

iremus 

iverimus  (ierimus) 

ivissemus  (iissemus,  Issemus) 


IMPERATIVE 


Pres. 

j 

ite 

Fut. 

ito 

itote 

ito 

eunto 

INFINITIVE 


PARTICIPLE 


Pres. 

ire 

Pres.  iens 

Perf. 

ivisse  (isse) 

(Gen.  euntis) 

Fut. 

iturus  esse 

Fut.  iturus 

GERUND 


SUPINE 


Gen.  eundi 

Dat.  eundo 

Ace.  eundum 

Abl.  eundo 


Ace.   itum 
AN.   itu 


queo,  /  can,  and  nequeo,  /  cannot,  are  conjugated  like  eo 


104 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


DEFECTIVE  VERBS 
230  The  following  three  lack  the  Present  System  : 

coepi,  /  have  begun        mcmiiil,  I  remember        odi,  /  hate 

INDICATIVE 


Perf. 
Plup. 
P.P. 

coepi 
coeperam 
coepero 

meminl 
memineram 
meminero 

odi 
oderam 
odero 

SUBJUNCTIVE 

Perf. 
Plup. 

coeperim 
coepissem 

meminerim 
meminissem 

oderim 
odissem 

IMPERATIVE 

memento,  mementote 

INFINITIVE 


Perf. 
Fut. 

coepisse                        meminisse 
coepturus  esse 

odisse 
osurus  esse 

PARTICIPLE 


Perf.   coeptus 
Fut.   coepturus 


osus 
osurus 


The  Perfect,  Pluperfect,  and  Future  Perfect  of  meminl 
and  odi  have  the  meanings  of  the  Present,  Imperfect,  and  Fu- 
ture respectively  ;  odi,  /  hate,  oderam,  /  was  hating,  odero, 
/  shall  hate. 


IMPERSONAL  VERBS  105 

231  inquam,  say  I  (inserted  in  direct  quotations). 


SINGULAR  PLURAL 

2nd.  Pres.  inquam    mquis      inquit  inquiunt 

Ind.  Fut.  inquies    inquiet 


232  ajo,  I  say,  assert. 


SINGULAR  PLURAL 

Ind.  Pres.  ajo          ais  ait  ajunt 

Ind.  Impf.  ajebam  ajebas  ajebat          ajebamus    ajebatis    ajebant 

Subj.  Pres.  ajas  ajat 


IMPERSONAL  VERBS 

233  Impersonal  Verbs  are  those  which  do  not  take 
a  personal  subject,  and  are  therefore  translated 
with  it.  Thus  pluit,  it  rams,  pudet,  it  shames, 
accidit,  it  happens.  They  are  used  only  in  the 
Third  Person  Singular  and  in  the  Infinitive. 
Impersonal  Verbs  include : 

1.  Verbs  referring  to  the  weather  : 

pluit,  it  rains  fulget,  it  lightens 

ningit,  it  snows  tonat,  it  thunders 

2.  Verbs  of  feeling  and  conduct : 

FEELING  CONDUCT 

miseret,  it  causes  pity  decet,  it  is  becoming 

paenitet,  it  repents  dedecet,  it  is  unbecoming 

piget,  it  grieves  libet,  it  suits 

pudet,  it  shames  licet,  it  is  lawful 

taedet,  it  disgusts  oportet,  it  ought 

refert,  it  concerns 

With  Impersonal  Verbs  of  Feeling  the  person  concerned  is 
in  the  Accusative.  Thus  pudet  me,  it  shames  me  =  I  am 
ashamed. 


106  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

With  Impersonal  Verbs  of  Conduct  the  person  concerned 

is  in  the  Dative.    Thus  libet  mihi,  it  suits  me,  oportet  tibi, 

you  ought  =  you  must,  licet  tibi,  it  is  lawful  for  you  =  you  may. 

3.  Other  verbs  sometimes  used  impersonally,  and  a  few 

Passive  forms,  such  as  : 

accidit,  it  happens  accedit,    it  is  added 

placet,    it  pleases  praestat,  it  is  better 

curritur  it  is  run      =  some  one  runs 

pugnatur        it  is  fought  =  there  is  fighting 
actum  est       it  is  done     =  all  is  over 
ventum  est    it  is  come     =  some  one  has  come 

THE   PARTICLES 

234  Adverbs,  Conjunctions,  Prepositions,  and  Interjections  are 
called  Particles  (7,  8,  9).      Adverbs  change  their  form   by 
Comparison  only  (44).     Apart  from  this  the  Particles  are 
not  inflected. 

ADVERBS 

FORMATION 

235  Most  Adverbs  are  derived  from  Adjectives. 

1.  Adverbs  are  formed  from  Adjectives  of  the  First  and  Sec- 
ond Declensions  by  changing  the  final  vowel  of  the  stem  to  -e. 

ADJECTIVES  ADVERBS 

Thus  liber  (stem  libero-),/ree,  becomes  Hbere,  freely 
verus  (stem  vero-),  true,        "        vere,    truly 

2.  Adverbs   are   formed  from  Adjectives  of  the  Third 
Declension  by  adding  -ter  to  the  stem. 

ADJECTIVES  ADVERBS 

acer  (stem  acri-),  sharp,  becomes  acriter,     sharply 

fortis  (stem  forti-),        brave,        "        fortiter,    bravely 
felix  (stem  felici-),         happy,       "        fellciter,   happily 
amans  (stem  amant-),  loving,      "        amanter,  lovingly 
Notice  that  stems  in  -nt  lose  the  t  before  -ter. 


ADVERBS  107 

236  1.  Some  Adverbs  in  -e  have  also  a  form  in  -iter  : 

humane  and  humaniter,  kindly 
large       and  largiter,       lavishly 

2.  Some  Adverbs  in  -e  have  also  a  form  in  -6,  sometimes  with 
change  of  meaning  : 

certe,  at  least  certo,  certainly 

rare,  thinly  raro,  seldom 

vere,  truly  vero,  true  but 

237  1.  Many  Adverbs  are  really  Accusative  or  Ablative  forms  of 
Adjectives,  Nouns,  or  Pronouns  : 

ACCUSATIVE    FORMS  ABLATIVE    FORMS 

triste,  sadly  modo,  only 

multum,  much  primo,  at  first 

clam,  secretly  magnopere,  greatly 

quam,  as  forte,  by  chance 

quid  ?  why  9  qua,  where 

2.  Some  Adverbs  have  the  ending  -tim  (~sim)  or  -im  : 

statim,  at  once  passim,  everywhere 

paulatim,  gradually          interim,  meanwhile 

3.  Some  Adverbs  end  in  -tus  : 

antiquitus,  of  old  radlcitus,  from  the  roots 

COMPARISON 

238  Adverbs  follow  the  comparison  of  the  Adjec- 
tives from  which  they  are  derived.     The  end- 
ings of  Adverbial  comparison  are  : 

POSITIVE  COMPARATIVE  SUPERLATIVE 

1.          -e  or  -ter  -ius  -issime 

alte,  loftily  altius  altissime 

fellciter,  happily  felicius          felicissime 

following  the  comparison  of  altus  and  felix  (see  120). 


108 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


2.  -e  or  -ter  -ius  -rime 
libere,  freely                      liberius          liberrime 
acriter,  sharply                 acrius            acerrime 

following  the  comparison  of  liber  and  acer  (see  122). 

3.  -e  or  -ter  -ius  -lime 
facile,  easily                       facilius          facillime 
similiter,  in  like  manner    similius         simillime 

following  the  comparison  of  facilis  (see  123). 
239  The  following  are  irregular  in  comparison  : 

POSITIVE 

bene,  well 
male,  ill 
multum,  much 
parum,  (too)  little 
diu,  long 
saepe,  often 
nequiter,  worthlessly 
prope,  near 


COMPARATIVE 

SUPERLATIVE 

melius 

optime 

pejus 

pessime 

plus 

plurimum 

minus 

minime 

diutius 

diutissime 

saepius 

saepissime 

nequius 

nequissime 

propius 

proxime 

magis,  more 

maxime,  most 

potius,  rather 

potissimum,  most 

of  all 

prius,  formerly 

primum,  first 

CLASSES 

240  Adverbs  are  divided  into  the  following  classes  : 

1.  Adverbs  of  Manner.     This  is  by  far  the  largest  class, 
including  nearly  all  Adverbs  derived  from  Adjectives ;  as 
vere,  truly,  bene,  weUy  facile,  easily. 

2.  Adverbs  of  Place  : 

ubi,  where      ibi,  there          alicubi,  usquam,  somewhere 
hie,  here         hue,  hither      hinc,  lience  hac,  this  way 

illic,  there       illuc,  thither   illinc,  thence  iliac,  that  way 


PREPOSITIONS  109 

3.  Adverbs  of  Time  : 

cum,  when     turn,  then        nunc,  just  now        tune,  just  then 
quando  ?       jam,  now,  al-   umquam,  ever        numquam, 
when  9  ready,  soon  never 

4.  Adverbs  of  Degree  : 

quam,  as  much  as        tarn,  so  much  quamvls,  however  much 
quotiens,  as  often  as    totiens,  so  often 

5.  Adverbs  of  Question  (Interrogative  Particles) : 

-ne,  nonne,  num   are  question  marks  (280) 
an,  anne,  utrum,  utrumne,  or,  whether 
annon,  necne,  or  not 

6.  Adverbs  of  Assent  and  Denial  : 

etiam  yes,  so    ita,  yes,  so  quidem,  indeed,  to  be  sure 

non,  no,  not      haud,  hardly,  not     minime,  not  at  all 

7.  Adverbs  of  Number  (see  132). 

PREPOSITIONS 

241  Prepositions  stand  before  the  cases  they  govern. 

But  versus,  -ward,  and  tenus,  as  far  as,  are  postpositive. 

242  These  twenty-nine  take  the  Accusative  only : 

ad,  to  erga,  towards  pone,  behind 

adversus,  against    extra,  without  post,  after 

adversum,  towards  infra,  below  praeter,  except 

ante,  before  inter,  among  prope,  near 

apud,  at,  near          intra,  within  propter,  on  account  of 

circa,  around  juxta,  near  secundum,  according 

circiter,  about  ob,  on  account  of  supra,  above  [to 

circum,  around  penes,  in  the  trans,  across 

cis,  citra,  this  side       power  of  ultra,  beyond 

contra,  opposite  to  per,  through  versus,  -ward 


110  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

243  These  ten  take  the  Ablative  only  : 

a,  ab,  abs,  away  from,  by  e,  ex,  out  from,  out  of 

absque,  without  (apart  from)  prae,  compared  with 

coram,  in  presence  of  pro,  for,  in  behalf  of,  in  front  of 

cum,  with  sine,  without,  -less 

de,  down  from,  concerning  tenus,  up  to,  as  far  as 

244  Before  consonants  a  or  ab,  e  or  ex  may  be  used.     Before  a 
vowel  or  h  always  use  ab  and  ex  :  ab  imtio,from  the  begin- 
ning, ex  urbe,  out  from  the  city,  ex  hordeo,  out  of  bar- 
ley,    abs  is  rare. 

Sometimes  cum  is  appended  to  certain  Pronouns  in  the 
Ablative  : 

mecum,  with  me  voblscum,  with  you 

secum,  with  him,  with  them         quibuscum,  with  whom 

245  These  four  take  the  Accusative  or  Ablative  : 

in,  in,  into,  against  subter,  underneath 

sub,  under  super,  above 

in  and  sub  with  the  Accusative  denote  motion  to  a  place ; 
with  the  Ablative  they  denote  rest  in  a  place.     Thus  : 

in  urbem  venit  he  came  into  the  city 

in  urbe  habitat  he  dwells  in  the  city 

sub  montem  pervenit  he  arrived  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain 

sub  monte  underneath  the  mountain 

246  The  Inseparable  Prepositions  (or  Adverbs)  are  so  named  be- 
cause they  occur  only  in  compound  words.     They  are  : 

amb(i)-,  around  amb-ire,  go  around 

au-,away  au-fugere,  flee  away 

dis-,  dl-,  asunder  dis-tinere,  hold  apart 

in-,  not,  un-  in-imicus,  un-friendly 

por-,  forth  por-rigere,  hold  forth 

red-,  re-,  back  red-Ire,  go  back,  re-turn 

sed-,  se-,  apart  se-cedere,  go  apart,  se-cede 

ve-,  not,  -less  ve-cors,  heart-less 


CONJUNCTIONS  111 

CONJUNCTIONS 

247  Conjunctions    (joining-words)    connect   words, 
phrases,  or  clauses.    They  are  of  two  kinds  : 

I.  Coordinate    Conjunctions,  joining  words, 
phrases,  or  clauses  having  the  same  construc- 
tion : 

sol  et  lima,  sun  and  moon. 

senatus  populusque,  the  senate  and  people. 

aut  vivam  aut  moriar,  /  shall  either  live  or  die. 

II.  Subordinate  Conjunctions,  joining  a  sub- 
ordinate to  a  principal  clause  (see  287)  : 

si  vales,  bene  est,  if  you  are  in  health,  it  is  ivell 

veni  ut  viderem,  (/  came  that  I  might  see),  I  came  to  see 

I.  COORDINATE  CONJUNCTIONS 

248  Coordinate  Conjunctions  are  divided  into  five 
classes  : 

1.  Copulative  (uniting)  : 

et,  -que,  atque  (ac),  and ;  etiam,  quoque,  also 

et  connects  expressions  of  like  importance. 

-que  connects  expressions  closely  combined  in  mean- 
ing. It  is  regularly  appended  to  the  second  word  (terra 
manque,  by  land  and  sea)  or  to  the  first  word  of  the  sec- 
ond clause  (Aquilonem  claudit  emittitque  Notum,  he 
holds  the  North  (wind)  and  sends  forth  the  South). 

atque  (ac)  connects  two  expressions,  the  second  of  which 
is  more  prominent  in  meaning,  ac  is  used  only  before  con- 
sonants. 

etiam  is  like  et. 

quoque  follows  its  word  :  tu  quoque,  and  you  too! 


112  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

The  following  pairs  are  often  used  : 
et  .  .  .  et  both  .  .  .  and 

neque  .  .  .  neque  ) 
nee  ...  nee          [  mither  "  '  nor 
cum  .  .  .  turn  while  .  .  .  at  the  same  time 

249  2.  Disjunctive  (separating) : 

aut,  vel,  -ve,  sive,  or 
The  following  pairs  are  often  used  : 
aut  .  .  .  aut  either  .  .  .  or  (exclusive) 

vel  .  .  .  vel  either  .  .  .  or  (indifferent) 

sive  .  .  .  sive  if  ...  or  if 

aut  Caesar  aut  nullus  either  Caesar  or  nobody 

vel  paci  vel  bello  paratus       ready  for  (either)  peace  or  war 

250  3.  Adversative  (opposing)  : 

sed,  verum,  autem,  at,  atqui,  but 
verum  is^stronger  than  sed. 

autem,  but,  however,  is  postpositive  (follows  its  word) :  haec 
autem  dico,  but  this  I  say. 
at,  but,  on  the  contrary  ;  atqui,  but  yet. 

Also :  tamen,   however ;  ceterum,   but  still ;  vero,  but 


The  following  pair  is  often  used  : 
non  solum  .  .  .  sed  etiam,  not  only  .  .  .  but  also 

251  4.  Inferential  (consequence,  result) : 

ergo,  therefore  :  cogito  ergo  sum,  /  think,  therefore  I  am. 
igitur,  then,  is  postpositive  :  quid  igitur  faciam  ?  what  then 
shall  I  do? 
itaque,  and  so. 

252  5.  Causal  (reason,  explanation)  : 

nam,  namque,  enim,  etenim,  for 
enim  is  postpositive  :  haec  enim  dico,  for  this  I  say. 

253  The  omission  of  coordinate  conjunctions  is  called  Asyndeton. 

veni,  vidi,  vlci,  /  came  and  saw  and  overcame. 


CONJUNCTIONS  113 

II.  SUBORDINATE  CONJUNCTIONS 

254  Subordinate    Conjunctions    are    divided    into 
eight  classes : 

1.  Final  (end  or  purpose) : 

ut,  uti,  quo,  (in  order)  that 
ne,  quominus,  quin,  that  not 

veni  ut  te  viderem,  (/  came  that  I  might  see  you),  I  came  to 

see  you. 

claudl  curiam  jubet,  ne  quis  egredi  possit,  he  orders  the 

senate-chamber  to  be  closed,  that  no  one  may  be  able  to  leave. 

255  2.  Consecutive  (completion,  result) : 

ut,  (so)  that  ut  non,  (so)  that  not 

tarn  longe  aberam  ut  non  viderem,  /  was  so  far  away  that 
I  did  not  see. 

256  3.  Temporal  (time) : 

quando,  cum  (quom),  ubi,  when 

simul,  simul  ac,  simul  atque,  as  soon  as 

dum,  donee,  quoad,  quamdiu,  while,  until,  as  long  as 

antequam,  priusquam,  before 

postquam,  after 

cum  ver  appetit,  milites  ex  hibernls  movent,  when  spring 
approaches,  the  soldiers  move  out-of  winter-quarters. 
dum  splro,  spero,  (as)  long  as  I  breathe,  I  hope. 

257  4.  Causal  (reason,  explanation)  : 

quia,  quod,  quoniam,  quando,  because,  inasmuch  as 
cum  (quom),  since 

gaudeo  quod  te  interpellavi,  /  am  glad  (because)  I  inter- 
rupted you. 

258  5.  Concessive  (allowing)  : 

quamquam,  quamvls,  cum,  licet,  etsi,  although 

quamvis  ingenio  non  valet,  arte  valet,  although  he 
not  succeed  by  genius,  he  succeeds  by  art. 


114  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

259  6.  Conditional  (supposing)  : 

si,  if\  nisi,  ni,  if  not ;  sin,  but  if 

dum,  modo,  dummodo,  if  only,  provided 

si  vales,  bene  est,  if  you  are  in  health,  it  is  well. 

oderint  dum  metuant,  let  them  hate,  provided  they  fear. 

260  7.  Comparative  (comparing) : 

ut,  uti,  quam,  as 

slcut,  even  as  ;  prout,  according  as  ;  velut,  just  as 
tamquam,  quasi,  as  if 
perge  ut  Instituisti,  go  on  as  you  have  begun. 

261  8.  Interrogative  (in  questions).     These  are  Adverbs  used  as 
Conjunctions  (for  list  see  240)  : 

quaero  utrum  hoc  feceris  necne,  /  ask  whether  you  did 
this,  or  not. 

INTERJECTIONS 

262  Interjections  are  exclamations  of  surprise,  joy, 
sorrow,  disgust,  and  calling: 

6,  0  !  6  tempora,  0  the  times  ! 

ecce,  lo !  see  I  ecce  Crispmus,  see !  (here's)  Crispinus ! 

en,  lo  here  !  en  ego,  here  I  am ! 

io,  euoe,  ho !  io  Bacche,  ho !  Bacchus  ! 

euge,  bravo !  euge,  beatus  es  quom  clamas,  bravo ! 

you  look  fine  ivhen  you're  shouting  ! 

heu,  eheu,  alas !  eheu  fugaces  labuntur  anni,  alas !  the 
fleeting  years  glide  by. 

vae,  woe  f  vae  victis,  woe  to  the  conquered  ! 

pro,  for !  pro  pudor,  for  shame ! 

apage,  get  out !  apage,  molestus  ne  sis,  get  out !  don't 
bother  me! 

ohe,  0  there  I  ohe  jam  satis  est,  0  there!  that's  enough 

now. 

heus,  eho,  halloo!  heus  tibi  dico,  halloo  (there)  ! Pm  speak- 
ing to  you. 


FORMATION  OF  WORDS  115 

THE    FORMATION    OF    WORDS 

263  Words  formed  from  other  words  are  divided 
into  two  classes,  Derivatives  and  Compounds. 

1.  Derivatives  are  formed  by  adding  endings  called  Suf- 
fixes to  the  stems  of  nouns,  adjectives,  verbs,  or  adverbs : 

filius  (stem  filio-),  son          fili-olus,  little  son  fili-ola,  little 
audax  (stem  audac-),  bold    audac-ia,  boldness         [daughter 

rego  (stem  reg-),  rule  rex  (=  reg-s),  reg-num, 

ruler,  king  kingdom 

2.  Compounds  are  formed  by  linking  one  word  or  its  stem 
to  another. 

The  word  thus  prefixed  or  added  modifies  the  meaning  of 
the  other  word,  which  contains  the  leading  idea.  Thus  in 
red-eo,  go  back,  the  leading  idea  is  contained  in  eo,  go,  and  is 
modified  in  meaning  by  red-,  back. 


264  Nouns  from  Nouns. 
1.  Diminutives  in 


I.  DERIVATIVES 

A.  NOUNS 


-ulus 

-ula 

-ulum 

-olus 

-ola 

-olum 

-culus 

-cula 

-culum 

-ellus 

-ella 

-ellum 

-illus 

-ilia 

-ilium 

riv-ulus,      rivulet      (rivus,  flos-culus,    floiveret      (flos, 

stream)  flower) 

silv-ula,  little  wood  (silva,  sac-ellum,  shrine  (sacrum, 

forest)  holy  place) 

fili-olus,  young  son  (filius,  son)  Iap-illus,^e^  (lapis,  stone) 


116  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

2.  Nouns  of  Place  Where   Gathered,  ending  in  -arium, 
-etum,  -He  : 

aerarium,  treasury  (aes,  money) 
quercetum,  oak  grove  (quercus,  oak) 
ovlle,  sheepfold  (ovis,  sheep) 

3.  Nouns  of  Place  or  Eelationship,  ending  in  -ma,  -ium  : 

doctrlna,  teaching  (doctor,  teacher) 
tonstrina,  barber  shop  (tonstor,  barber) 
consortium,  companionship  (consors,  consort) 

4.  Greek  nouns  of  Descent  (Patronymics),  ending  in  -ides, 
-Ides,  -ades  ;  feminine  in  -is,  -eis,  -ias  : 

Priamides,  son  of  Priam  Atlantis,  daughter  of  Atlas 

Atrldes,  son  of  Atreus  Nereis,  daughter  of  Nereus 

265  Nouns  from  Adjectives  are   Abstract.     The   endings   -ia, 
-(i)tia,  (i)tas,  (i)tudo  denote  quality  : 

audacia,  boldness    (audax,  Hbertas,    freedom      (liber, 

bold)  free) 

amicitia,  friendship    (ami-  fortitudo,    bravery    (fortis, 

cus,  friendly)  brave) 

266  Nouns  from  Verbs. 

1.  Nouns  of  Activity  or  Feeling,  ending  in  -or  : 
amor,  love  calor,  warmth  (caleo,  am  warm) 

2.  Nouns  of  Personal  Agency,  ending  in  -tor  (-sor) ;  fem- 
inine, -trlx : 

victor,  victrlx,  conqueror  cursor,  runner 

A  few  nouns  in  -tor  are  derived  from  nouns  :  viator,  trav- 
eler (via,  way),  janitor,  doorkeeper  (janua,  door),  funditor, 
slinger  (funda,  a  sling). 


FORMATION  OF  WORDS  117 

3.  Nouns  of  Action  Going  On,  ending  in  -tio  (-sio)  and 
-tus  (-sus),  genitive  -us : 

actio,  action,  a  doing  motus,  motion,  a  moving 

oratio,  oration,  a  speaking        cursus,  race,  a  running 
consensio  and  consensus,  consent,  an  agreeing 

4.  Nouns  of  Embodiment  of  Action  (Instrument,  Means, 
Place).    These  end  in  -men,  -mentum,  -crum,  -trum,  -bulum, 
-culum : 

flumen,  river  (f[uo,flow)  aratrum,  a  plow  (a.ro,plow) 

ornamentum,  ornament  (or-  stabulum,  stall  (sto,  stand) 

no,  adorn)  vehiculum,  carriage  (veho, 

sepulcrum,  grave  (sepultus,  carry) 

buried) 

B.  ADJECTIVES 
267  Adjectives  from  Nouns. 

From  Common  Nouns 

1.  Adjectives  of  Material,  ending  in  -eus  and  -inus  : 
aur-eus,  golden  (aurum,  gold)    ferr-eus,  of  iron  (ferrum,  iron) 

2.  Adjectives  meaning  Belonging  or  Pertaining  To,  end- 
ing in 

-ius,  -icus,  -icius 

-His,  -alis,  -aris,  -arius 

-nus,  -anus,  -Inus,  -ivus,  -ensis,  -ester 

reg-ius,  royal  (rex,  king)  urb-anus,  of  the  city  (urbs, 

bell-icus,  warlike  (bellum,  city) 

war)  mar-mus, marine  (mare,  sea) 

vir-Ilis,  manly  (vir,  man)  aest-ivus,  of  summer  (aes- 

reg-alis,  regal  (rex,  king)  tas,  summer) 

popul-aris,  popular  (popu-  castr-ensis,o/^c«wjt?(cas- 

lus,  people)  tra,  camp) 

pater-nus,  paternal  (pater,  camp-ester,  level  (campus, 

father)  plain) 
9 


118  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

3.  Adjectives  of  Fulness,  ending  in  -osus,  -lentus  : 

aquosus,     watery      (aqua,        opulentus,  ivealthy    (opes, 
water)  resources) 

4.  Adjectives  meaning  Supplied  With,  ending  in  -tus  : 

alatus,  winged  (ala,  wing)  aurltus,  having  ears  (auris, 

togatus,     gowned      (toga,  ear) 

gown) 

From  Proper  Nouns 

5.  Adjectives  derived  from  names  of  Persons  end  in  -anus, 
-ianus,  -Inus : 

Caesarianus,  of  Caesar,  Caesarian 
Plautmus,  of  Plautus 

6.  Adjectives    derived   from    names    of   Nations    end    in 

-icus,  -ius: 

Gallicus,  Gallic 
Syrius,  Syrian 

7.  Adjectives  derived  from  names  of  Places  end  in 

-anus,  -Inus,  -ensis, 
-aeus,  -ius,  -as. 

Romanus,  Roman  Smyrnaeus,  of  Smyrna 

Caudmus,  Caudine,  of  Cau-  Corinthius,  Corinthian 

dium  Arpmas,  of  Arpinum 
Atheniensis,  Athenian 

268  Adjectives  from  Adjectives.     A  few  Diminutives  only  : 

parvulus,  little  (parvus,  small) 
aureolus,  golden-hued  (aureus,  golden) 

269  Adjectives  from  Verbs. 

1.  Adjectives  of  Imminent  Condition,  ending  in  -bundus, 
-cundus.     They  are  like  Present  Participles  : 

moribundus,  going  to  die,  dying  (morior,  die) 
iracundus,  getting  enraged  (Irascor,  am  angry) 


FORMATION  OF  WORDS  119 

2.  Adjectives  of  Settled  Condition,  ending  in  -idus: 

calidus,  warm  madidus,  wet 

candidus,  white  validus,  strong 

3.  Adjectives  of  Capability,  ending  in  -ilis,  -bilis: 

fragilis,  fragile  (breakable)     mobilis,  movable 

4.  Adjectives  of  Tendency,  ending  in  -ax,  -ulus  i 

audax,  daring  bibulus,  apt  to  drink 

loquax,  talkative          credulus,  credulous 

270  Adjectives  from  Adverbs,  ending  in  -ernus,  -ternus,  -tmus, 
-tinus : 

hodiernus,  of  to-day  (hodie) 
hesternus,  yester-(day)  (hen) 
clandestmus,  secret  (clam) 
crastinus,  of  to-morrow  (eras) 

c.  VERBS 

271  Verbs  from  Nouns. 

euro,  care  for  (cura,  care)        metuo,  fear  (metus,  fear) 
luceo,  shine  (lux,  light)  vestio,  clothe  (vestis,  garment) 

272  Verbs  from  Adjectives. 

claudico,  limp  (claudus,  lame) 
levo,  lighten,  relieve  (levis,  light) 
Hbero,  set  free  (liber,  free) 

273  Verbs  from  Verbs. 

1.  Inceptives,  denoting  Action  Beginning,  ending  in  -sco : 
horre-sco,  shudder,  groiv  rough  (horreo,  dread,  be  rough) 
ob-dormi-sco,  go  to  sleep  (dormio,  sleep) 

2.  Frequentatives,  denoting  Action  Repeated,  ending  in  -to, 
-so  ;  or  in  -ito  when  derived  from  verbs  of  First  Conjugation : 

cap-to,  grasp  at  (capio,  take) 
can-to,  sing  on  (cano,  sing) 
cur-so,  run  about  (curro,  run) 
rog-ito,  keep  asking  (rogo,  ask) 


120  LATIN   GRAMMAR, 

But  notice : 

agito,  agitate  (from  ago  of  Third  Conjugation) 
haesito,  hesitate  (from  haereo  of  Second  Conjugation) 

Frequentatives  derived  from  other  Frequentatives  some- 
times occur : 

cantito,  sing  on  and  on  (canto) 
cursito,  keep  running  about  (curso) 

3.  Desideratives,  denoting  Desire  to  Act,  ending  in  -urio : 
esurio,  long  to  eat,  am  hungry  (edo,  es-se,  eat] 

274  Nouns.  1L  COMPOUNDS 

1.  Noun  and  Verb  : 

agri-cola,  (field-tiller),  farmer 
arm(i)-ger,  armor-bearer 
fratri-cida,  fratri-cide 

2.  Preposition  and  Noun  : 

de-decus,  dis-grace 

in-genium,  (in-born  nature),  disposition 

275  Adjectives. 

1.  Adjective  and  Noun  : 

magn-animus,  great-souled 
miseri-cors,  (tender-hearted),  merciful 

2.  Noun  and  Verb  : 

muni-ficus,  muni-ficent,  generous 
parti-ceps,  parti-bating,  sharing 

3.  Preposition  (or  Adverb)  and  Adjective  or  Noun  (246) : 
in-dlgnus,  un-worthy  de-mens,  de-mented 
per-magnus,  very  great         se-curus,  care-less 

276  Verbs. 

1.  Noun  and  Verb  : 

anim-adverto,  notice  (turn  mind  to) 
aedi-fico,  build  (make  house) 


FORMATION  OP  WORDS  121 

2.  Adjective  and  Verb  : 

ampli-fico,  ampli-fy,  enlarge 

_ 

3.  Verb  and  Verb : 

cale-facio,  make  warm  (cale-6  and  facio) 

4.  Adverb  and  Verb  : 

ne-scio,  not  know,  be  ignorant 
satis-facio,  satis-fy  (do  enough) 

5.  Preposition  and  Verb  (246) : 

dis-traho,  draw  apart,  dis-tract 
red-eo,  go  lack,  re-turn 


THIRD   PART:    SENTENCES 


I.  THE  SENTENCE  IN  GENERAL 

277  A  Sentence  is  a  thought  expressed  in  words. 
Every  Sentence  must  contain  a  Subject  and 
a   Predicate.      The    Subject  is   that  which  is 
spoken    of;    the    Predicate    is  that   which   is 
said  about  the  Subject.     Thus  in  the  sentence 
Caesar  pervenit,    Caesar   arrived,   Caesar  is 
the   Subject   and    pervenit   is   the   Predicate. 
In    errare   humanum   est,    to-err    is    human, 
errare   is  the   Subject  and   humanum  est   is 
the  Predicate. 

278  The  Finite  Yerb  (157)  always   contains  a  Subject   and   a 
Predicate.     It  alone  can  make  a  complete  Sentence.     Thus 
ama-t,  lie  loves.     Every  Sentence  must  contain  a  Verb  (155), 
either  expressed  or  understood.     In  the  following  the  Yerb 

is  not  expressed,  but  is  understood  : 

i 

nemo  malusj  felix,  no  bad  man  (is)  happy 
omne   vlvuni   ex    ovo,   every   living-thing   (comes)  from 
the  egg 

122 


THE  SENTENCE  IN  GENERAL  123 

WAYS  OF  STATING  THE  SENTENCE 

279  A  sentence  may  be  expressed  in  four  ways — 

1.  Declarative — as  a  fact : 

Caesar  Galliam  vicit,  Caesar  conquered  Gaul. 

2.  Interrogative — as  a  question  : 
quis  Galliam  vlcit,  who  conquered  Gaul? 

3.  Imperative — as  a  command  : 
Galliam  vince,  conquer  Gaul ! 

4.  Exclamatory — as  an  exclamation  : 

quot  gentes  Caesar  vlcit,   how    many   tribes 
Caesar  conquered  ! 

DIRECT  QUESTIONS1 

280  Interrogative  Sentences  (Direct  Questions)  are  divided  into — 

1.  Word-Questions,  introduced  by  interrogative  pronouns 
and  adverbs  : 

quern  vides,  whom  do  you  see  9   quo  vadis,  whither  goest  thou  9 

2.  Sentence-Questions,  introduced  by  -ne,  nonne,  num  : 
videsne,  do  you  see  9  (answer  may  be  yes  or  no) 
nonne  vides,  don't  you  see  9  (expects  answer  yes) 
num  vides,  you  don't  see  9  (expects  answer  no) 

Sometimes  the  Sentence-Question  omits  the  introductory 
particle  :  video,  do  I  see  9 

281  Direct  Double  Questions  are  introduced  by  V 

utrum  ...  an  (anne)  -ne  .  .  .  an  (anne) 

...  an  (anne)  -ne  .  .  .  annon 

eloquar  an  sileam,  shall  I  speak  or  keep  silent  9 
utrum  honestum  est  an  turpe,  is  it  honorable  or  base  9 
tune  hoc  fecisti  annon,  did  you  do  this,  or  not  9 

1  For  Indirect  Questions  see  590. 


124:  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

282  The  Answer  to  a  question  is  expressed  as  follows  : 

1.  Yes— by  repeating  the  verb,  or  by  ita,  certe,  etiam, 
sane,  scilicet,  vero : 

venlsne,  are  you  coming  9    venio,  yes,  or  ita,  yes. 

2.  No — by  repeating  the  verb  with  a  negative,  or  by  non, 
non  ita,  minime  : 

venlsne,  are  you  coming  ?    non  venio,  no,  or  non,  no. 

283  Questions  which  have  the  force  of  asserting  something  oppo- 
site to  the  question  asked  are  called  Rhetorical  Questions  : 

quis  hoc  credat,  who  would  believe  this  9  (nobody). 
quis  dubitat,  who  doubts  9  (nobody). 

KINDS  OF  SENTENCES 

284  A  Simple  Sentence  contains  but  one  Subject 
and  one  Predicate. 

A  Compound  Sentence  contains  more  than 
one  Subject  or  Predicate. 

Simple  Sentence  :  ego  te  amo,  /  love  you. 
Compound  Sentences : 

tu  me  amas,  ego  te  amo,  you  love  me,  I  love  you. 
divide  et  impera,  divide  and  conquer. 

285  Sentences  containing  more  than  one  Subject  or  Predicate 
treated  as  a  single  Subject  or  Predicate  are  sometimes  ex- 
plained  as   Simple   Sentences  and  sometimes  as  shortened 
Compound  Sentences : 

pater  et  mater  mortui  sunt,  father-and-mother  are  dead. 
pater  vivit  atque  valet,  father  is-alive-and-well. 

Every  Compound  Sentence  is  made  up  of  two  or  more 
sentences  called  Clauses. 

286  The  Clauses  of  a  Compound  Sentence  are  called 
Coordinate  when  they  are  parallel  independ- 


THE  SENTENCE  IN   GENERAL  125 

ent  sentences.  Thus  sol  ruit  et  montes  um- 
brantur,  the  sun  descends  and  the  mountains  are 
shadowed,  consists  of  two  independent  sen- 
tences, sol  ruit  and  montes  umbrantur. 

287  A   Clause   which   is   governed   by   another  is 
called    dependent   or   Subordinate.      Thus   in 
cum  sol  ruit,  montes  umbrantur,  when  the  sun 
descends,  the  mountains  are  shadowed,  cum  sol 
ruit  is  a  Subordinate  Clause  stating  the  Time 
of  montes  umbrantur,  the  leading  or  Principal 
Clause. 

HOW  WOEDS  ARE  COMBINED  IN  SENTENCES 

288  Words  are  combined  in  five  ways.    Each  word 
either— 

1.  Agrees  With, 

2.  Governs, 

3.  Depends  On  (or  Is  Governed  By), 

4.  Introduces,  or 

5.  Connects 

some  other  word  or  words. 

1.  Agreement.     In  vir  magnus,  a  great  man,  the  ad- 
jective magnus  agrees  with  the  noun  vir  in  Gender  (mas- 
culine), Number  (singular),  and  Case  (nominative). 

2.  Government.    In  montem  video,  I  see  the  mountain, 
the  verb  video  governs  montem. 

3.  Dependence.    In  montem  video,  I  see  the  mountain, 
the  noun  montem  is  governed  in  the  Accusative  Case  by 
the  verb  video. 


126  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

4.  Introduction.     In  si  venis,  if  you  come,  the  conjunc- 
tion si  introduces  the  verb  venis. 

5.  Connection.     In  pater  et  mater,  father  and  mother, 
the  conjunction  et  connects  the  nouns  pater  and  mater. 

IMPORTANT  RULES  FOR  COMBINING  WORDS 

289  The  following  rules  are  so  important  that  they  should  be 
learned  at  the  start : 

I.  The  Subject  of  a  Finite  Verb  is  in  the 
Nominative  : 

hora  venit,  the  hour  has  come. 

The  Subject  must  be  a  noun  or  a  substitute  for  a  noun — 
for  example,  a  pronoun,  an  infinitive,  or  a  clause : 

quis  scribit,  who  writes? 

e r r a r e  humanum  est,   to-err  is  human. 

accidit  ut  esset  luna  plena,  (it)  happened  that-it- 

was  -fu  ll-moon. 

The  Subject  is  always  implied  in  the  personal  end- 
ing of  the  verb : 

ama-t,  he  loves,  ama-mus,  we  love. 

290  II.  A  Predicate  Noun  agrees  with  its  Subject, 
in  Case. 

A  Predicate  Noun  is  one  which  explains  another  noun 
referring  to  the  same  thing,  and  is  connected  with  it  by  some 
verb  of  Being,  Seeming,  Becoming,  or  the  like : 

Romulus  rex  fuit,  Romulus  was  Icing. 

Cicero  factus  est  consul,  Cicero  became  consul. 

re  gin  a  colorum  lux  est,  light  is  the  queen  of  colors. 

The  Predicate  Nouns  above  are  rex,  consul,  regina. 
When  possible,  a  Predicate  Noun  agrees  with  its  Subject 
in  Gender : 


TEE  SENTENCE  IN  GENERAL  127 

Masculine:  usus  magister  est,  experience  is  a  teacher. 
Feminine:    vita  magistra  est,  life  is  a  teacher. 

291  III.  An  Appositive  (Noun)  agrees  with  its  Sub~ 
ject  in  Case. 

An  Appositive  is  a  noun  which  explains  another  noun 
referring  to  the  same  thing,  and  is  joined  to  it  without  any 
connecting  word : 

urbs  Roma,  the  city  Rome. 
flumen  R  h  e  n  u  s ,  the  river  R  h  i  n  e . 
Vergilius  p o £ t a ,  Virgil  the  poet . 

292  1.  When  possible,  the  Appositive  agrees  with  its  Subject  in 
Gender  and  Number : 

Orion  venator,  Orion  the  hunter. 

voluptas  adsentatrix,  pleasure  the  flatterer. 

But,  Tullia,  deliciae  meae,  Tullia,  my  darling. 

2.  Partitive  Apposition : 

Caesar  et  Bibulus  consules,  Caesar  and  Bibulus,  the 
consuls . 

Here  consules  is  in  Apposition  with  Caesar  and  Bibu- 
lus separately  or  Partitively. 

3.  A  common  noun  in  Apposition  with  a  Locative  (55) 
is  put  in  the  Ablative : 

Antiochiae,  celebrl  urbe,  at  Antioch,  a  famous  city. 

293  IV.  An  Adjective  agrees  with  its  Noun  in  Gen- 
der, Number,  and  Case. 

Like  Adjectives  in  Agreement  are  Pronouns  and  Par- 
ticiples. 

servus  bonus,  a  good  slave  dl  magnl,  the  great  gods 

b  o  n  a  fides,  good  faith  d  u  a  e  partes,  two  parts 

oleum  b  o  n  u  m ,  g  o  o  d  oil  t  r  i  a  verba,  three  words 

ilia  mulier,  t  h  a  t  woman  sol  o  r  i  e  n  s ,  the  rising  sun 


128  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

294  1.  With  two  or  more  Nouns  the  Adjective  is  usually  in 
the  Plural  Number,  but  sometimes  agrees  with  the  nearest : 

Nisus  et  Euryalus  primi,  Nisus  and  Euryalus  first. 
pater  meus  et  mater,  my  father  and  mother. 

2.  With  a  Collective  Noun  (singular  in  form  and  plural  in 
meaning)  the  Adjective  may  be  of  the  Number  and  Gender 
which  suit  the  meaning  of  the  Noun : 

pars  certare  p  a  r  a  1 1 ,  part  ready  to  fight. 

pars  melior,  the  better  part. 

mllle  c  a  p  1 1  sunt,  a  thousand  (men)  are  captured. 

3.  A  Neuter  Adjective  is  sometimes  used  to  bring  out 
better  the  sense  intended : 

mors  est  extremum,  death  is  the  last  (thing). 

295  With  two  or  more  Nouns  in  different  Genders — 

1.  An  Attributive  Adjective  usually  agrees  with  one  noun : 
c  u  n  c  t  a  maria  terraeque,  a  1 1  seas  and  lands. 

2.  A  Predicate  Adjective  is  Masculine  when  the  nouns 
denote  persons,  and  Neuter  when  the  nouns  denote  things  : 

pater  et  mater  mortul  sunt,  father  and  mother  are  dead. 
Ira  et  odium  t  u  r  p  i  a  sunt,  anger  and  hatred  are  base. 

When  the  nouns  include  both  persons  and  things,  the  Ad- 
jective may  be  Masculine  or  Neuter  : 

rex  regiaque  classis  una  prefect!,  the  king  and  the 
royal  fleet  set  sail  together. 

natura  inimica  sunt  libera  civitas  et  rex,  hostile  ly 
nature  are  a  free  state  and  a  king. 

NOTE. — An  Attributive  Adjective  is  one  which  modifies  its 
Subject  directly:  vita  brevis,  a  short  life.  A  Predicate 
Adjective  is  one  which  modifies  its  Subject  by  the  help  of  a 
Verb  to  which  it  is  joined:  vita  brevis  est,  life  is  short, 
ars  est  longa,  art  is  long. 


THE  SENTENCE  IN  GENERAL  129 

296  V.  A  Finite  Verb  agrees  with  its  Subject  in 
Number  and  Person  : 

tempus  fugit,  time  flies  (singular  number,  third  person). 
nos  desumus,  we  fail  (plural  number,  first  person). 

With  One  Subject 

297  1.  Sometimes  the  Yerb  is  Plural  when  its  Subject  in  the 
Singular  is  used  in  a  plural  sense : 

multitude  a  b  e  u  n  t ,  the  multitude  depart. 

uterque  eorum    exercitum    educunt,  they  each    lead 

forth  (their)  army. 

2.  When  the  Predicate  Noun  (290)  stands  nearer  than  the 
Subject  to  the  Yerb,  the  Yerb  agrees  with  the  Predicate  Noun  : 
puerl  Trqjanum  dicitur  agmen,  the  boys  are  called 
the  Trojan  band. 

3.  Sometimes  the  Yerb  agrees  with  the  Appositive  (291) 
instead  of  the  Subject : 

Corinthus,  totlus  Graeciae  lumen,  exstinctum  est, 

Corinth,  the  light  of  all  Greece,  is  put  out . 

4.  The  participial  forms  (167.  3)  of  the  Yerb  agree  with 
the  Subject  in  Gender,  Number,  and  Person  : 
delenda  est  Karthago,  Carthage  must  be  destroyed. 

With  More  Than  One  Subject 

298  1.  With  two  or  more  Subjects  the  Yerb  may  agree  in  Num- 
ber with  one  or  all  of  them  : 

ego  et  Cicero  valemus,  Cicero  and  I  are  well. 

et  castra  et  legiones  et  imperator  in  penculo  versa- 

t u r ,  camp,  legions,  and  commander  are  involved  in  peril. 

2.  With  subjects  of  different  Person  the  Yerb  agrees  with 
the  first  person  rather  than  the  second  or  third,  and  with  the 
second  rather  than  the  third  : 

ego  et  tu  valemus,  you  and  I  are  ivell. 

ego  et  Tullia  valemus,  Tullia  and  I  are  well. 

tu  et  Tullia  v  a  1  e  t  i  s ,  you  and  Tullia  are  well. 


130  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

3.  With  Subjects  of  different  Gender  participial  forms 
(167.  3)  of  the  Yerb  follow  the  rule  for  Predicate  Adjec- 
tives (295.  2). 

299  VI.    The  Relative  Pronoun  (147)  agrees  with 
its  Antecedent   in   Gender  and   Number,   but 
its  Case  depends  on  the   construction  of  the 
clause  in  which  it  stands. 

The  Antecedent  is  the  word  to  which  the  Relative  Pro- 
noun refers : 

is  minimo  eget,  qui  minimum  cupit,  he  needs  least,  who 

wants  least. 

liber,  quern  legis,  meus  est,  the  book  (w hick)  you  are 

reading  is  mine. 

flumen,  quod  in  Rhodanum  influit,  a  river  which 

empties  into  the  Rhone. 

300  When   there  is   more   than   one   Antecedent   the   Relative 
follows  the  rule  for  Predicate  Adjectives  (295.  2) : 

pater  et  films,  qui  sunt  mortul,  father  and  son,  who  are  dead. 
pater  et  mater,  qui  sunt  mortul,  father  and  mother,  who 
are  dead. 

divitiae  et  honores,  quae  sunt  caduca,  riches  and  hon- 
ors, which  are  perishable  (things). 

Variations  in  Agreement 

301  1.  The  Relative  usually  agrees  with  an  Appositive  (291)  or  a 
Predicate  Noun  (290),  rather  than  with  its  Antecedent : 

flumen  O  x  u  s ,  qui  semper  turbidus  est,  the  river  Oxus, 
which  is  always  muddy. 

Here  qui  agrees  with  the  masculine  Appositive  Oxus,  and 
not  with  flumen,  the  neuter  Antecedent. 

Thebae,  quod  est  caput  Boeotiae,  Thebes,  ivhich  is 
the  capital  of  Boeotia. 

Here    quod    agrees  with  the  neuter  singular  Predicate 


THE  SENTENCE  IN  GENERAL  131 

Noun   caput,  and  not  with   Thebae,  the  feminine  plural 
Antecedent : 

2.  The  Relative  sometimes  agrees  with  the  sense  rather 
than  with  the  form  of  the  Antecedent : 

equitatum  praemittit,  qui  videant,/^  sends  forth  cav- 
alry to  see  (literally,  who  may  see). 

Here  qui  is  plural,  agreeing  with  the  plural  sense  rather 
than  with  the  singular  form  of  equitatum. 

x 

302  1.  The  Relative  is  sometimes  attracted  into  the  case  of  its 
Antecedent : 

natus  eo  patre  quo  dixi,  lorn  of  the  father  that  I  said. 

Instead  of  quern  dm. 

2.  In  poetry  the  Antecedent  is  sometimes  attracted  into 
the  case  of  the  Relative  (Inverse  Attraction)  : 

urbem  quam  statuo,  vestra  est,  the   city  (which)  I 
build  is  yours. 

Instead  of  the  regular  urbs,  quam  statuo,  vestra  est. 

The  Antecedent 

303  1.  The  Antecedent  is  sometimes  omitted  : 

quod  scrips!,  scrips!,  what  I  have  written,  I  have  written. 

2.  The  Antecedent  is  sometimes  repeated  in  the  Relative 
clause : 

erant  itinera  duo,  quibus  itineribus  ex!re  possent, 

there  were  two  routes  by  'which  (routes)  they  could  go  out. 

3.  The  Antecedent  is  often  placed  in  the  Relative  clause : 

Amanus,  qui  mons  erat  hostium  plenus,  Amanus,  a 
mountain  ivhich  was  full  of  enemies. 

Instead  of  mons  Amanus,  qu!  erat. 

quam  quisque  novit  a  r  t  e  m,  in  hac  se  exerceat,  what 
trade  each  one  understands,  (in)  that  let  him  practise  (himself). 


132  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

304  1.  The  Relative  is  never  omitted,  as  it  is  in  English  : 

Idem  sum  qui  semper  fui,  /  am  the  same  I  always  ivas. 

2.  The  Relative  is  often  used  with  the  force  of  a  Demon- 
strative (141),  especially  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence  : 
quae  cum  ita  sint,  since  these  things  are  so,  since  this  is  so. 
quae  qui  audiebant,  (those)  who  heard  this. 
quo  cognito,  this  (being)  known,  when  this  was  known. 

When  the  Relative  refers  to  a  whole  sentence  as  its  Ante- 
cedent, quod  or  quae  res  is  used  : 

sapientes  soli,  quod  est  proprium  divitiarum,  content! 
sunt  rebus  suis,  the  wise  alone  are  content  with  their  own, 
w hich  is  the  true  mark  of  riches. 

multae  civitates  defecerunt;  quae  res  multorum  bel- 
lorum  causa  fuit,  many  states  revolted ;  a  thing  that  was 
the  cause  of  many  wars. 

In  the  same  way  id  quod  is  used  in  clauses  containing 
incidental  or  passing  statements  (by  the  way) : 

si  a  vobis  deserar,  id  quod  non  spero,  tamen  non  defi- 
ciam,  if  I  am  to  be  deserted  by  you,,  a  thing  (by  the  way) 
I  do  not  expect,  still  I  shall  not  fail. 

Here  id  is  in  apposition  with  the  clause  si  a  vobis  de- 
serar,  which  is  used  as  Antecedent. 

II.  THE   USES  OF   NOUNS 

305  The  various  uses  of  the  six  Cases  (55)  make  up 
the  Syntax  of  the  Noun.     The  Cases  are  best 
studied  in  the  following  order : 

1.  Nominative     Used  as  Subject 

2.  Vocative         Used  in  Direct  Address 

3.  Accusative      Used  as  Direct  Object 

4.  Dative  Used  as  Indirect  Object 

5.  Genitive          Used  like  an  Adjective 

6.  Ablative          Used  like  an  Adverb 


THE  USES  OF  NOUNS  133 

NOMINATIVE 

306  The  Nominative  is  used,  as  already  explained," 

1.  As  the  Subject  of  a  Finite  Verb  (289). 

2.  As  a  Predicate  Noun  (290). 

3.  As  an  Appositive  (291,  292). 

VOCATIVE 

307  The  Vocative  is  regularly  the  Case  of  Direct 
Address,  with  or  without  an  Interjection : 

6  di  immortales,  0  immortal  gods  ! 
audi,  fill  ml,  hear,  my  son  ! 

But  the  Nominative  is  sometimes  used  in  a  similar  way : 
6  festus  dies,  0  happy  day  ! 
audi  tu,  populus  Albanus,  hear,  Allan  people! 

ACCUSATIVE 
1.  THE  DIRECT  OBJECT 

808  The  Direct  Object  of  an  Active  Transitive  Verb 
is  in  the  Accusative. 

Verbs  which  take  a  Direct  Object  are  called  Transitive 
(passing-over),  because  the  action  of  such  Verbs  passes  over 
to  or  ends  on  an  object. 

The  Direct  Object  is  usually  the  Person  or  Thing  on 
which  the  Verb  acts  directly  (Object  Affected),  but  is  some- 
times the  Eesult  Produced  by  the  action  (Object  Effected) : 

Romulus   R e m u m  interfecit,   Romulus   killed  Remus. 
Here  Remum  is  the  Object  Affected. 

Romulus   Romam   condidit,   Romulus  founded    Rome. 
Here  Romam  is  the  Object  Effected. 
10 


134  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

309  Intransitive  verbs  of  Feeling  are  often  used  transitively  : 

meum  casum  doled,  I grieve-at  my  misfortune. 
/  310  Also  verbs  of  Tasting  and  Smelling  : 

piscis  mare  sapit,  the  fish  smacks-of  the  sea. 
v  I  n  u  m  redolens,  smelling-of  wine. 

311  Many  intransitive  verbs  of  Motion  become  transitive  when 
compounded  with  prepositions. 

These  include  all  compounded  with  circum,  per,  praeter, 
subter,  trans ;  many  with  ad,  in,  super ;  and  some  with 
ante,  con,  inter,  ob,  sub  : 

M  u  t  i  n  a  m  circumsedent,  they  besiege  (sit-around)  Mutina. 
agrum  percurrit,  he  overruns  (runs-through)  the  terri- 
tory. 

f  1  u  m  e  n  transiit,  he  went-across  the  river. 
sublre  perlculum,  to  under-go  danger. 

312  Many  verbs,  commonly  intransitive,  take  as  the  Object  a 
neuter  pronoun  or  adjective  : 

i  d  gaudeo,  /  am  glad-of  that. 

idem  glorior,  I  make  the  same  boast. 

utrumque  dolet,  he  is  grieved-at  both. 

mult  a  taceo,  /  keep-silent-alout  many  (things). 

313  Some  intransitive  verbs  take  as  an  Object  a  noun  of  kindred 
meaning  (Cognate  Accusative) : 

vl  tarn  be  at  am  vivere,  to  live  a  happy  life. 
mirum  s  o  m  n  i  u  m  somniavi,  I  dreamed  a  wondrous  dream. 
J  314  Many  Impersonal  verbs  (233)  take  an  Accusative  of  the  Per- 
son as  Object : 

pudet  t  e,  you  are  ashamed  (it  shames  y  o  u). 
nisi  m  e  fallit,  unless  I  am  mistaken. 

315  A  few  verbs  in  the  Passive  voice  are  used  in  a  reflexive 
sense,  and  thus  take  an  Accusative  as  Object : 

g  a  1  e  a  m  induitur,  lie  puts  on  his  helmet  (literally,  he  puts- 
on-himself  his  helmet). 


THE  USES  OF  NOUNS  135 

316  The  Accusative  is  sometimes  used  as  an  Adverb  : 

maximam  partem  lacte  vlvunt,  they  live  on  milk  for 
the  most  part. 

The  following  are  in  common  use  : 
multum,  much  nihil,  not  at  all 

maximam  partem,/or  the  most  part  non  nihil,  someivhat 
plurimum,  very  greatly  aliquid,  somewhat 

plerumque,  usually  quid,  why  ?  (for 


2.  TWO  ACCUSATIVES— SAME   PERSON  OR  THING 

317  Verbs  of  Making,  Choosing,  Calling,  Showing, 
and  the  like,  may  take  two  Accusatives,  one 
the  Direct  Object  and  the  other  a  Predicate 
Noun  or  Adjective : 

Caesarem  certiorem  fecerunt,  they  informed  Caesar 
(literally,  made  Caesar  more- certain). 
me  cepere  arbitrum,  they  took  me  (as)  umpire. 
urbem  Romam  vocavit,  he  called  the  city  Rome. 

In  the  Passive  both  the  Object  and  Predicate  become 
nominatives : 

Caesar  certior  factus  est,  Caesar  was  informed. 
urbs  Roma  vocata  est,  the  city  was  called  Rome. 

3.   TWO  ACCUSATIVES— PERSON  AND   THING 

318  Some  verbs  of  Asking,  Demanding,  Teaching, 
and   Concealing  take  two  Accusatives,,  one  of 
the  Person  and  the  other  of  the  Thing  : 

Catonem  sententiam  rogavit,  he  asked  Cato  (his) 
opinion. 

quis  te  litteras  docuit,  who  taught  you  (your)  letters? 
non  te  celavi  sermonem,  /  did  not  conceal  the  con- 
versation (from)  you. 


136  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

In  the  Passive  the  Accusative  of  the  Person  becomes  a 
nominative,  and  the  Accusative  of  the  Thing  remains  accusa- 
tive : 

Cato  sententiam  rogatus  est,  Cato  was  asked  (his) 
opinion. 

V319  Instead  of  the  Accusative  of  the  Person  the  Ablative  with 
ab  or  de  is  used  with  some  verbs  of  Asking : 

pacem  ab  Romanis  petunt,  they  seek  peace  from  the 
Romans. 

320  Some  compounds  of  trans  take  two  accusatives : 

milites  flumen  traduxit,  he  led  the  soldiers  across 
the  river. 


J 


4  ACCUSATIVE  OF  PART  AFFECTED  (GREEK  ACCUSATIVE) 

321  This  accusative  is  used  chiefly  in  poetry  and  with  reference 
to  some  part  of  the  human  body.     It  is  sometimes  called  the 
Accusative  of  Specification  : 

miles  fractus  membra,  a  soldier  shattered  (i n  h i s)  limbs. 
tremis  ossa  pavore,  you  shiver  (in  your)  bones  from  fear. 
It  occurs  with  Adjectives,  as  well  as  Verbs  : 

nuda  genu,  bared  (to)  the  knee. 

os  deo  similis,  like  a  god  (in)  countenance. 

5.  AS  SUBJECT   OF  THE  INFINITIVE 

322  The  Subject  of  the  Infinitive  is  in  the  Accusa- 
tive: 

Caesarem  adesse  nuntiat,  he  announces  that  Caesar  is 
present. 

6.   IN  EXCLAMATIONS 

323  The  Accusative  is  used  in  Exclamations  : 

m  e  miserum,  wretched  m  e  ! 

en  quattuor  aras,  lo!  four  altars! 


THE  USES  OF  NOUNS  137 

7.  TIME   AND  SPACE 

K  324  Duration  of  Time  and  Extent  of  Space  are  ex- 
pressed by  the  Accusative . 

decem  annos  natus,  ten  years  old  (born  ten  years). 
sex  mili  a  passuum  procedit,  he  advances  six  miles. 

Duration  of  Time  is  sometimes  expressed  by  the  Accusa- 
tive with  per : 

per  totum  diem,  (throughout)  the  whole  day. 

8.  LIMIT  OP   MOTION 

325  The  Aim  or  Limit  of  Motion  is  expressed  by 
the  Accusative. 

1.  Generally  with  ad  or  in : 

ad  Genavam  pervenit,  he  arrived  at  (near)  Geneva. 
Hannibal  exercitum  in  Italiam  duxit,  Hannibal  led  his 
army  into  Italy. 

2.  But  without  a  Preposition  are — 

Frequently  the  Names  of  Towns,  Little  Islands,  and  Pen- 
insulas : 

Rom  am  proficlscitur,  he  sets  out  for  Rome. 
confugit  Delum,  she  fled  to  Delos. 
Chersonesum  pervenit,  he  arrived  at  the  Chersonesus. 
And  always  domum,  home,  rus,  the  country,  foras,  out-doors : 
d  o  m  u  m  redi,  go  lack  home  I 
rus  Ibo,  I  shall  go  to  the  country. 
effugi  foras,  I  fled  out-doors. 

DATIVE 
I.   THE   INDIRECT  OBJECT 

326  The  Indirect  Object  is  in  the  Dative. 

The  Indirect  Object  is  that  to  which  anything  is  done : 
hoc  tibi  dicp,  I  tell  you  this. 


138  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

327  This  use  of  the  Dative  occurs — 

1.  With  transitive  verbs  along  with  the  Di- 
rect Object : 

do  tibi  librum,  I  give  you  a  book. 

sese    fugae    mandaverunt,    they    betook    themselves    to 

flight. 

pecuniae    pudorem    anteponit,    he   prefers    honor    to 

money  (places  honor  before  money). 

328  Some  verbs  admit  two  constructions. 

Dative  and  Accusative : 

urbi  muros  circumdat,  he  puts  walls  around  the  city. 
Accusative  and  Ablative  : 

urbem   muris    circumdat,  he  surrounds  the  city    with 
walls. 

329  Like  the  Indirect  Object  is  the  Dative  used  in  poetry  to  ex- 
press the  Direction  of  Motion  : 

it  clamor  caelo,  the  shout  goes  up  to  heaven. 

330  2.  With  many  intransitive  verbs  meaning 

Favor,  Please,  Trust,  Assist  (and  their  opposites), 

Command,  Obey,  Serve,  Resist, 

Threaten,  Pardon,  Spare,  Persuade  ;  and  the  like : 
quae  vidi,  m  i  h  i  placent,  wliat  I  have  seen  pleases  m  e. 
huic  legion!  Caesar  conf idebat  maxime,  Caesar  trusted 
this  legion  most. 

b o n I s  nocet  qui  malls  parcit,  he  harms  the  good  who 
spares  the  bad. 
crede  mihi,  believe  me! 
sic  mihi  persuasi,  so  I  have  persuaded  myse  If. 

^331  In  the  Passive  such  verbs  are  used  impersonally  only,  and 
retain  the  Dative  : 

mihi  persuadetur,  /  am  being  persuaded  (it  is  persuaded 

to  me). 

null!  parcitur,  none  is  spared  (it  is  spared  to  no  one). 


THE  USES  OF   NOUNS  139 

v  332  3.  With  many  verbs  compounded  with 

ad,  ante,  con, 
in,  inter,  ob, 
post,  prae,  pro, 
sub,  and  super. 

adfuit  his  pugnis,  he  was  present  at  these  I  at  ties. 

parva  magnis   conferre,  to  compare  small  (things)  with 

great. 

ponto  nox  incubat  atra,  Uack  night  broods  on  the  deep. 

333  4.  With  many  Adjectives  and  a  few  Nouns  and 
Adverbs. 

These  include  Adjectives  meaning 

Useful,  Pleasant^  Friendly,  Fit, 
Like,  Equal)  Near,  and  Dear, 

with  others  of  like  or  opposite  meaning : 

m  i  h  i  amicissimus,  most  friendly  to  me. 
canis  similis  1  u  p  6  est,  a  dog  is  like  a  wo  If. 
sunt  proximi  German!  s,  they  are  next  to  the  Germans. 
The  Nouns  and  Adverbs  thus  used  are  derived  from  words 
which  govern  the  Dative  : 

obtemperatio  legibus,  obedience  to  the  laws. 
convenienter  naturae  vivere,  to  live  agreeably  to  nature. 

II.  DATIVE   OF   PERSON   OR  THING  CONCERNED 

334  This  Dative  expresses  that  for  or  with  regard  to 
which  anything  is  or  is  done.     It  includes  the 
following  different  uses : 

335  1.  Dative  of  Reference,  denoting  the  object  in- 
terested or  referred  to  : 

militibus  spem  minuit,  as  for  the  soldiers,  it  less- 
ened their  hopes. 


140  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

non  scholae  sed  vltae  discimus,  we  are  learning,  not 
for  school,  but  for  life. 

erit  ille  mi  hi  semper  deus,  to  me  (in  my  eyes)  he  will 
ever  be  a  god. 

336  The  personal  pronouns  are  sometimes  used  in  a  similar  way 
to  give  a  light  touch  of  special  reference  (Ethical  Dative) : 

at  tibi  repente  venit  Caninius,  but,  (mark)  you!  all  at 
once  in  came  Caninius. 

quid  sibi  vult?  what  does  he  mean?  (wish  so  far  as  con- 
cerns himself). 

337  Here  belongs  the  Dative  used  with  verbs  of  Separation, — 
compounds  of  ab,  de,  ex  : 

solstitium  p  e  c  o  r  I  defendite,  keep  the  hot  sun  from  the 

flock. 

silici  scintillam  excudit,  he  struck  a  spark  from  the 

flint. 

338  Also  Dative  of  the  Supposed  Standpoint, — always  a  participle : 

GomphI  est  oppidum  primum  Thessaliae  venienti- 
bus  ab  Epiro,  Gomplii  is  the  first  town  of  Thessaly  as  you 
come  (to  those  coming)  from  Epirus. 

339  2.  Dative  of  the  Agent,  denoting  the  person 
acting. 

This  is  used  with  the  Gerundive  and  compound  tenses  of 
the  Passive  Voice  : 

ratio  nobis  reddenda  est,  we  must  give  an  account  (as 
for  us,  our  account  must  he  given). 

mi  hi  consilium  captum  est,  my  plan  is  formed  (as  for 
m  e ,  my  plan  is  formed). 

340  3.  Dative  of  the  Possessor. 

This  is  used  with  the  verb  esse.     Here  est  mihi  means 
/  have. 

est  mihi  liber,  /  have  a  hook. 
sunt  tibi  libri,  you  have  books. 


THE  USES  OP  NOUNS  141 

With  nomen  est  the  name  may  be  Nominative  or  Dative : 

fons  cui  nomen  Arethusa  est,  a  fount  ivhose  name  is 

Arethusa. 

nomen  Arcturo  est  mihi,  my  name  is  Arcturus. 

III.   PREDICATE  DATIVE 

341  The  Predicate  Dative  is  of  two  kinds,  the  Da- 
tive of  Tendency  and  the  Dative  of  Purpose. 

342  1.  Dative  of  Tendency,  denoting  what  a  thing 
tends  to  be. 

This  is  used  with  verbs  of  Being  and  Considering : 

est  c u r a e,  it  is  (fo r)  a  care. 

vitio  ducere,  to  count  U  (as)  a  fault. 

343  2.  Dative  of  Purpose,  denoting  what  a  thing  is 
meant  to  be : 

c  o  1 1  o  q u i  6  diem  dicunt,  they  name  a  day  for  the  inter- 
view. 
receptui  canere,  to  sound  (for)  a  retreat. 

344  Adjectives  meaning  Useful  or  Suitable  are  used  with  a  Dative 
which  is  like  the  Dative  of  Purpose : 

castris  locus  idoneus,  ajrtacefit  for  a  camp. 

345  A  Predicate  Dative  often  occurs  along  with  the  Dative  of 
Keference  (335) : 

cui  bo  no  est?  to  ivliom  is  it  (any)  good? 

hoc    mihi   nemo   vitio   ducat,   may  no  one  count   this 

against  me  as  a  faiilt. 

GENITIVE 

346  The  Genitive,  or  Adjective  Case,  defines  or  ex- 
plains the  word  it  modifies.     It  is  used  chiefly 
with  nouns,  adjectives,  or  verbs,  and  is  usually 


142  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

to  be  translated  by  the  preposition  of.  The 
Genitive  is  used  in  three  ways — as  an  Attribute, 
a  Predicate,  and  an  Object-Case  with  Verbs. 

I.   ATTRIBUTIVE  GENITIVE 

347  The  Attributive  Genitive  is  used  chiefly  with 
nouns  and  adjectives.     It  adds  to  or  explains 
more   precisely   the    meaning  of  the  word   it 
modifies.     It  includes  the  following  uses  : 

348  1.  Genitive  of  Exact  Definition,  expressing  the 
particular  sense  to  which  the  modified  word  is 

limited  : 

dies  profectionis,  day  of  departure. 

nomen  amicitiae,  the  name  "friendship" 

pridie  ejus  diet,  on  the  day  before  that  day. 

copiae  peditatus  equitatusque,  forces 

of  infantry  and  cavalry. 
(Origin)        Marcl  fllius,  the  son  of  Marcus. 
(Material)     pondus  auri,  amass  of  gold. 

349  This  Genitive  also  occurs  before  causa,  by  reason  of,  and 
gratia,  for  the  sake  of : 

ejus  causa,  on  his  account. 

exempli  gratia,  for  the  sake  of  example. 

350  2.  Subjective  Genitive,  denoting  the  subject  of 
the  action  implied  in  the  modified  word : 

amor  patris,  a  father's  love. 

illud  P 1  a  1 6  n  i  s ,  that  (saying]  of  Plato. 

351  3.  Objective   Genitive,  denoting  the  object  of 
the  action  implied  in  the  modified  word : 

amor  patriae,  love  of  country, 
venditio  bonorum,  a  sale  of  goods. 


THE   USES  OF   NOUNS  143 

352  Many  adjectives  and  participles  take  the  Objective  Genitive  : 

immemor  beneficii,  forgetful  of  a  kindness. 

avidus  gloriae,  eager  for  glory. 

amantes  patriae,  lovers  of  (their)  country. 

353  4.  Possessive  Genitive,  denoting  possession  or 
ownership  : 

domus  Ciceronis,  Cicero'' s  house. 

354  5.  Genitive   of  Quality,   denoting  the  kind  or 
quality   of  the    modified   word.     Used    along 
with  an  Adjective  : 

vir  magnae  auctoritatis,  a  man  of  great  influ- 
ence. 

floras  mille  c o  1 6 r u m ,  flowers  of  a  thousand  hues. 
puer  novem  annorum,  a  boy  of  nine  years. 
fossa  quindecim  pedum,  a  trench  fifteen  feet  (wide). 

Under  this  are  included  the  Genitives  of  Number,  Meas- 
ure, Time,  and  Space. 

For  the  Ablative  of  Quality  see  394. 

355  6.  Genitive  of  the  Whole,  denoting  the  whole 
of  which  the  modified  word  is  a  part. 

It  is  also  called  the  Partitive  Genitive.     It  occurs 

356  (1)  With  nouns,  adjectives  (in  comparative  and  superlative), 
pronouns,  and  numerals  (130) : 

pars  equitatus,  part  of  the  cavalry. 
mille  passuum,  a  thousand  paces,  a  mile. 
minor  fratrum,  the  younger  of  the  brothers. 
ultimus  Romanorum,  the  last  of  the  Romans. 
primus  omnium,  the  first  of  all. 
quis  v  e  s  t  r  u  m ,  who  of  you? 

357  (2)  With  the  Neuter  Singular  of  some  adjectives  and  pro- 
nouns, and  the  adverbs  satis  and  parum : 


144  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

reliquum  vltae,  the  rest  of  life. 

quid  consilil,  what  plan? 

satis  eloquentiae,  sapientiae  parum,  eloquence 

enough,  (but)  little  sense. 

358  (3)  Occasionally  with  adverbs  of  Place  : 

eo  loci,  atthat  point  (literally,  there  of  the  place). 
ubi  terrarum,  where  in  the  world? 

II.   PREDICATE  GENITIVE 

359  A  Genitive  used  with  a  verb  to  assert  some- 
thing of  the  modified  word  is  called  a  Predi- 
cate Genitive.     Thus : 

domus  est  Ciceronis,  the  house  is  Cicero's. 

360  The  Possessive  Genitive  (353),  Genitive  of  Qual- 
ity (354),  and  Genitive  of  the  Whole  (355)  are 
sometimes  used  as  Predicate  Genitives  : 

domus  est  Ciceronis,  the  house  is  Cicero'' s. 

fossa  qulndecim  pedum  est  facta,  the  trench  was  made 

fifteen  feet  (wide). 

quid  sui  consilil  sit,  ostendit,  he  shows  what  his  plan  is. 

361  The  Genitive  of  Indefinite  Price  or  Value  is 
used  with  verbs  of  Valuing  : 

quanti  est,  how  much  is  it? 

t a n 1 1  aestimatur,  it  is  valued  at  so  much. 

par vl  duco,  I  think  it  worth  (but)  little. 

362  The  verbs  most  used  are  esse,  be  (worth),  ducere,  think  (it 
worth),  facere,  account  (it  worth),  putare,  suppose  (it  worth), 
haberi,  be  held,  and  aestimare,  value. 

The  genitives  most  used  are  the  neuter  adjectives 

tantl,  quanti, 
magni,  pluris,  plurimi, 
parvi,  minoris,  minimi. 


THE   USES  OF  NOUNS  145 

363  tanti,  quanti,  pluris,  minoris,  are  also  used  with  verbs  of 
Buying  and  Selling : 

quanti  aedes  vendis,  for  how  much  are  you  selling  your 
house  ? 

For  the  Ablative  of  Price  see  395. 

III.   OBJECTIVE  GENITIVE  WITH  VERBS 

364  1.  The  Genitive  is  used  with  verbs  of  Memory: 

memim,  /  remember,  reminlscor,   /  recall,  obliviscor,  / 

forget, 

(a)  With  Persons,  regularly  take  the  Genitive  : 
memento  mei,  remember  me. 

reminisceretur  pristinae  virtu tis  Helvetiorum,  he 
should  recall  the  old- time  valor  of  the  Helvetians. 
oblltus  m e 6 r u m ,  forgetting  my  (friends). 

(b)  With  Things,  take  the  Genitive  or  Accusative  : 

consiliorum  memim,  1  remember  your  advice. 
oblivisci  n  i  h  i  1  soles  nisi  i  n  j  u  r  i  a  s ,  you  are  wont  to  for- 
get nothing,  except  insults. 

NOTE  1. — With  neuter  pronouns  and  adjectives  the  Accu- 
sative is  regular  : 

forsan  et  h  a  e  c  olim  meminisse  juvabit,  perchance  some 
day  we  shall  be  glad  to  remember  this  too. 

NOTE  2. — memim,  meaning  recall,  takes  the  Accusative  : 
Cinnam  memim,  I  recall  Cinna. 

365  recorder,  /  bethink  myself,  takes  the  Genitive,  but  oftener 
the  Accusative : 

consiliorum  (or  consilia)  recorder,  /  bethink  myself 
of  his  counsel. 

The  Impersonal  in  mentem  venit,  it  comes  to  mind,  takes 
the  Genitive : 

P 1  a  1 6  n  i  s  mihi  in  mentem  venit,  Plato  comes  to  my  mind. 


146  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

366  Yerbs  of  Reminding  take  the  Genitive  of  the  Thing  with 
an  Accusative  of  the  Person  : 

te  veteris  amlcitiae  admoneo,  I  remind  you  of  our 
old  friendship. 

367  2.  The  Genitive  is  used  with  some  verbs  of  Ju- 
dicial Action. 

These  include  verbs  of  Accusing,  Acquitting,  Convict- 
ing, and  Condemning.  They  take  the  Genitive  of  the  Thing 
charged  and  an  Accusative  of  the  Person : 

me  furti  Insimulat,  he  falsely -accuses  me  of  theft. 
Catilinam   majestatis   damnare,   to  condemn   Catiline 
for  treason. 

reum  capitis  absolvere,  to  acquit  the  prisoner  of  a  capi- 
tal crime  (of  his  head). 

But  the  Penalty  is  in  the  Ablative  : 

reum  capite  damnare,  to  condemn  the  prisoner  to  death 
(with  his  head). 

368  3.  The  Genitive  is  used  with  some  Impersonal 
Verbs  (233). 

(1)  With  verbs  of  Feeling. 

These  are  miseret,  paenitet,  piget,  pudet,  taedet. 

They  take  a  Genitive  of  that  which  causes  the  feeling, 
and  an  Accusative  of  the  person  concerned : 
nonne  t e  miseret  m e I ,  are  you  not  sorry  fo r  me? 
me  pudet  facti,  lam  ashamed  of  what- I-did  (the  deed). 

Sometimes  a  Neuter  or  the  Infinitive  is  used  instead  .of 
the  Genitive : 

te  h  6  c  pudet,  you  are  ashamed  of  t  h  i  s . 

pudet  me  dissentiri,  1  am  ashamed  to  disagree. 

369  (2)  With  interest  and  refert. 

(a)  The  one  concerned  is  in  the  Genitive : 
ref  publicae  interest,  it  concerns  the  state. 


THE  USES  OF  NOUNS  147 

In  place  of  the  Genitive  of  the  Personal  Pronoun  the  Abla- 
tive Singular  Feminine  of  the  Possessive  Pronoun  is  used: 
me  a  refert,  nostra  refert. 

(b)  The  cause  of  concern  is  the  Subject,  and  is  expressed 

by 

A  Neuter  Pronoun  id  refert  mea,  that   interests  me. 

An  Infinitive  mea  interest  te  valere,  your  health 

concerns  me. 
A  Clause  quicquid     dixeris     mea    interest, 

whatever  you  say  concerns  me. 

(c)  The  degree  of  concern  is  expressed  by 

An  Adverb  magnopere  refert,  it  greatly 

concerns. 

n  i  h  i  1  interest,  it  makes  n  o  dif- 
ference. 

A  Genitive  of  Value  (361)    parvi  interest,  it  makes  little 

difference. 

370  4.  The  Genitive  is  occasionally  used  with  Verbs 
of  Plenty  or  Want : 

egeo  consilii,  I  need  advice. 

hoc  bellum  indiget  celeritatis,  this  war  requires  speed. 
These  verbs,  except  indigeo,  usually  take  the  Ablative 
(375). 

371  5.  The  Genitive  is  occasionally  used  with  Verbs 
of  Partaking  and  Acquiring  : 

potiri  r  e  r  u  m ,  to  get  control  of  affa irs. 
The  Ablative  of  Means  is  the  usual  construction  (387). 

ABLATIVE 

372  The  Ablative,  or  Adverbial  case,  is  principally 
used  to  modify  verbs  and  adjectives.     It  con- 
tains three  different  meanings,  corresponding 


148  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

to  three  cases  which  originally  were  separate 
but  later  were  blended  in  one.  The  three  mean- 
ings are  as  follows : 

I.  Whence? 

Ablative  Proper,  translated  by  from. 
II.  Wherewith? 

Instrumental,  translated  by  with  or  by. 
III.  Where? 

Locative,  translated  by  in  or  at. 

I.  THE  ABLATIVE  PROPER 

373  The  Ablative  Proper  includes  the 

1.  Ablative  of  Separation. 

2.  Ablative  of  Source. 

3.  Ablative  of  Agent. 

4.  Ablative  of  Comparison. 

374  1.  The  Ablative  of  Separation  is  used  with  or 
without  a  preposition. 

375  (1)  Usually  without  a  preposition  after  verbs  and  adjectives 
meaning  Relieve,  Deprive,  Need,  Lack : 

m  e  t  u  liberatus,  freed  from  fear. 

hostes   arm  Is   exuit,    he  stripped   the    enemy   of  their 

weapons. 

egeo  consilio,  I  need  advice  (370). 

vacuus  curls,  free  from  cares. 

376  (2)  With  or  without  a  preposition  after  verbs  meaning  Re- 
frain, Keep  Off,  Remove,  Depart: 

abstinere  i n j u r i a ,  to  abstain  from  i nj ury. 

e  clvitate  pulsus  est,  he  was  expelled  from  the  state, 

urbe  cessit,  he  withdrew  from  the  city. 


THE   USES  OF  NOUNS  149 

377  (3)  Usually  with  a  preposition  after  other  verbs  of  Separa- 
tion, especially  compounds  of  ab-,  dis-,  se- : 

Roma  longe  abest  ab  Athenis,  Rome  is  far  distant 

fr om  Athens. 

Britanni  differunt  a  Gallls,  the  Britons  differ  from  the 

Gauls. 

378  2.  The  Ablative  of  Source  is  used  with  partici- 
ples denoting  Birth  : 

Romulus  deo  natus,  Romulus,  lorn  of  a  god. 
summo  loco  natus,  of  high  birth. 
edite  re  gib  us,  0  descendant  of  kings. 

With  pronouns  ex  is  used :  e  x  m  e  natus,  my  son  (liter- 
ally, sprung  from  me). 

To  express  remote  ancestry  ab  is  used :  Belgae  sunt 
orti  ab  Germ  an  Is,  the  Belgians  are  descended  from  the 
Germans. 

379  3.  The  Ablative  of  the  Personal  Agent  is  used 
with  ab  after  passive  verbs  : 

rex  ab  suls  appellatur,  he  is  called  king  ~by  his  own 
(men). 

For  the  Dative  of  the  Agent  see  339. 

380  4.  The  Ablative  of  Comparison  is  used  after 
the  nominative  or  accusative  of  Comparatives  : 

Cicerone  eloquentior,  more  eloquent  than  Cicero. 

381  But  Comparatives   are  commonly  used  with   quam,   than. 
When  this  occurs,  the  two  things  compared  are  in  the  same 
case : 

Caesar  minor  est  quam  Cicero,  Caesar  is  younger 
than  Cicero. 

When  the  first  of  the  two  things  compared  is  in  any  other 
case  than  the  nominative  or  accusative,  quam  must  be  used. 
11 


150  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

382  The  neuter   comparatives   plus,  minus,  amplius,  longius, 
are  often  used  adverbially  without  affecting  the  case  : 

plus  septingenti  capti,  over  seven  hundred  (were) 

captured. 

minus  qulnque  milia,  under  five  miles. 

II.   THE  INSTRUMENTAL  ABLATIVE 

383  The  Instrumental  Ablative  includes  the  following  Ablatives  : 

1.  Cause.  6.  Quality. 

2.  Means.  Y.  Price. 

3.  Manner.  8.  Specification. 

4.  Accompaniment.  9.  Ablative  Absolute. 

5.  Degree  of  Difference. 

384  1.  The  Ablative  is  used  to  denote  Cause  : 

seu  Ira  seu  odio  seu  superb i a  nullam  vocem  emi- 
sit,  whether  from  anger  or  hate  or  pride,  he  uttered 
not  a  word. 
Jovis  j  u  s  s  u  venio,  /  come  a  t  Jove's  command. 

385  This  use  is  common  with  verbs  of  Feeling  and  Trusting  : 

m  a  e  r  6  r  e  discrueior,  /  am  distracted  by  reason  of  grief. 
non  mo  vetur  p  e  c  u  n  i  a ,  lie  is  not  siverved  by  money. 
natura  loci  confidebant,  they  trusted  in  the  nature  of 
their  position. 

386  2.  The  Ablative  is  used  to  denote  the  Means 
or  Instrument : 

o culls  videmus,  we  see  with  our  eyes. 
minimo  contentus,  content  with  very  little. 

387  The  following  uses  of  the  Ablative  of  Means  should  be  noticed : 
(1)  With  the  deponent  verbs  utor,  fruor,  fungor,  potior, 
vescor,  and  their  compounds : 

uti  consilio,  to  use  advice. 

victoria   potiri,  to  gain  a   victory   (become  master  by  a 

victory).     See  371. 

lacte  vescuntur,  they  live  on  milk  (feed  themselves  with  milk). 


THE  USES   OF   NOUNS  151 

388  (2)  With  words  of  Consisting,  Abounding,  and  Filling : 

totum  montem  ho  mi  nib  us  complevit,  lie  filled  the  whole 
mountain  with  men. 

389  (3)  With  many  other  expressions,  such  as — 

consilio  nobis  opus  est,  we  need  advice. 

quid  me  fiet,  what  will  become  of  me?  (be  done  with  me}. 

scopulo  nlxus,  leaning  on  a  rock. 

pi  la  ludere,  to  play  ball  (with  a  ball). 

fug  a  salutem  petere,  to  seek  safety  in  (by]  flight. 

proelio  lacessere,  to  provoke  to  (by)  battle. 

390  3.  The  Ablative  of  Manner  is  regularly  used 
with  the  preposition  cum  : 

cum  virtute  vivere,  to  live  virtuously. 
But  cum  may  be  omitted  when  there  is  an  adjective  agree- 
ing with  the  ablative  noun : 

magna  gravitate   loqul,   to  speak  with  much  dig- 
nity. 

391  Here  may  be  included  the  Ablative  of  Accordance,  which 
is  used  without  cum  : 

more  et  exemplo,  according  to  custom  and  prece- 
dent. 

Also  the  Ablative  of  Attendant  Circumstance  : 

Capuam  veni  maximo  imbrl,  /  came  to  Capua  in  a 
very  heavy  shower. 

392  4.  The  Ablative   of  Accompaniment   is   regu- 
larly used  with  the  preposition  cum  : 

cum  omnibus  copiis  exlre,  to  depart  ivith  all  their 
forces. 

In  military  expressions  cum  is  sometimes  omitted : 

omnibus  copiis  contenderunt,  they  marched  with  all 
their fo rces. 


152  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

393  5.  The  Ablative  of  Degree  of  Difference  is  used 
with  comparatives  and  words  suggesting  com- 
parison : 

uno   pede  longior,  one  foot  longer  (by  one  foot}. 
paulo  post,  a  little  afterwards  (by  a  little). 
m u  1 1 6  malim,  /  should  m uch  prefer. 

394  6.  The  Ablative  with  an  Adjective  is  used  to 
express  Quality  : 

mille   coloribus  arcus,    a  rainbow   of   a    thousand 

hues. 

flumen  rip  Is  praeruptis,  a  river  with  steep  banks. 

bono  animo  es,  be  of  good  courage. 

For  the  Genitive  of  Quality  see  354. 

395  7.  The  Ablative  is  used  to  express  Definite  or 
Indefinite  Price : 

aedes  duobus  talent  Is  emit,  he  bought  the  house  for 

two  talents. 

a  u  r  6  viri  vltam  vendidit,  she  sold  her  husband's  life  fo  r 

gold. 

Indefinite  Price  is  often  expressed  by  magno,  parvo, 
plurimo,  minimo,  or  by  the  Genitive  (361-363). 

396  8.  The  Ablative  of  Specification  denotes  that 
in  respect  to  which  anything  is  or  is  done  : 

virtu te  praestare,  to  excel  in  valor. 

Galli  lingua  differunt,  the  Gauls  differ  in  language. 

major  natu,  older  (greater  in  point  of  age). 

The  Ablative  with  dignus  and  indignus  belongs  here : 

fide  dignus,  worthy  of  belief. 

indigna  relatu,  things  not  worth  telling. 


THE  USES  OF  NOUNS  153 

397  9.  A  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  ablative,  com- 
bined with  a  participle  and  used  adverbially, 
is  said  to  be  in  the  Ablative  Absolute  : 

Caesar  equitatu  praemisso  subsequebatur,  send- 
ing forward  the  cavalry,  Caesar  followed  (literally,  the 
cavalry  being  sent  forward). 

398  Instead  of  a  participle  an  adjective  or  noun  may  be  used  : 

Caesare  vivo,  Caesar  (being]  alive,  when  Caesar  was 
alive,  while  Caesar  lived. 

me  invito,  against  my  ivish  (with  me  unwilling) . 
Romulo  rege,  Romulus  (being)  king,  when  Romulus 
was  king. 

399  In  translating  into  English,  the  Ablative  Absolute  is  often 
best  rendered  by  a  clause  with  an  active  verb  or  participle. 
Thus  equitatu  praemisso  may  be  translated  sending  for- 
ward  the  cavalry,  when  he  had  sent  forward  the  cavalry. 

The  Ablative  Absolute  should  always  be  translated  so  as 
to  bring  out  the  particular  meaning  intended.     Thus  : 

data  facultate     if  opportunity  were  given. 
_  .  ^against  his  will. 

[without  his  consent. 

(  thouqh  the  aods  are  unwilling. 
dis  invitis        \     .         ,-,       j  -77  • 

[since  the  gods  are  unwilling. 

III.   THE   LOCATIVE   ABLATIVE 

400  The  Locative  Ablative  includes  the  Ablatives  of  Place  and 
Time. 

401  1.  The  Place  Where  is  expressed  by  the  Abla- 
tive with  a  preposition  : 

erat  in  Gallia  ulteriore  una  legio,  there  was  one  le- 
gion in  farther  Gaul. 


154  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

402  But  the  following  are  used  without  a  preposition  : 

(1)  Names  of  towns  and  little  islands  : 
Carthagine,  at  Carthage.     Athenis,  at  Athens. 

(2)  Expressions  of  Place  containing  locus  or  totus : 

alio  loco,  elsewhere. 

tota  urbe,  in  the  whole  city. 

(3)  foris,  outdoors,  run,  in  the  country,  terra  manque, 
T)y  land  and  sea. 

403  Here  may  be  included  the  following  Locative  forms  (61,  69) : 

(1)  Names  of  towns  and  small  islands  ;  found  in  the  singu- 
lar of  first  and  second  declensions  : 

Romae,  at  Rome.  Ephesi,  at  Ephesus. 

Rhodi  ego  non  fui,  I  was  not  at  Rhodes. 

(2)  domi,  at  home.  huml,  on  the  ground. 
militiae,  in  ivar,  abroad.        vesperl,  at  evening. 
belli,  in  ivar.                          hen,  yesterday. 

404  2.  The  Place  From  Which  is  expressed  by  the 
Ablative  with  a  preposition  : 

Xerxes  ex  Europa  in  Asiam  revertit,  Xerxes  returned 

from  Europe  into  Asia. 

imber  de  caelo  decidit,  a  shower  falls  from  the  sky. 

405  But  names  of  towns  and  small  islands  are  used  without  a 
preposition : 

Carthagine  profectus,  setting  out  from  Carthage. 
C  y  p  r  6  reversus,  returned  from  Cyp  rus. 

406  3.  The  Time  at  Which  is  expressed  by  the  Ab- 
lative without  a  preposition : 

prima  luce,  at  dawn. 

adventu  meo,  at  my  departure. 

bellls  Punicis,  at  the  time  of  the  Punic  wars. 

proximis  comitils,  at  the  last  election. 

Sometimes  in  is  used  :  in  tali  tempore,  at  such  a  time. 


THE  USES  OF  ADJECTIVES  155 

407  4.  The  Time  Within  Which  is  expressed  by  the 
Ablative  with  or  without  a  preposition : 

quinque  annis  illos  libros  confecit,  lie  completed  those 
books  in  five  years. 
bis  in  die,  twice  a  day. 


III.    THE   USES  OF  ADJECTIVES 

408  The  Agreement  of  Adjectives  has  been  explained 

in   293,  294,  295. 

409  Adjectives  are  used  as  Nouns, 

1.  Often  in  the  Plural : 

fortuna  fortes  adjuvat,  fortune  favors  the  brave. 
vae  v i c t ! s ,  woe  to  the  vanquished ! 
parva  componere  magnis,  to  compare  small  (things) 
with  great. 

2.  Sometimes  in  the  Singular : 

sapiens  dominatur  astris,  the  ivise  (man)  rules  his  stars. 
multum  in  parvo,  much  in  little. 
nihil  no  vl,  nothing  new. 

410  In  the  singular  the  noun  is  generally  expressed  when  persons 
are  meant : 

homo  doctus,  a  scholar. 
m  u  1  i  e  r  vidua,  a  widow. 
liber  homo,  a  gentleman. 

411  Some  Adjectives  have  become  Nouns : 

amicus,  friend  librarius,  bookseller 

cognatus,  kinsman  vlcmus,  neighbor 

In  such  instances  the  Adjective  use  has  partly  or  wholly 
disappeared. 


156  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

412  Some  Adjectives  are  used  like  Adverbs : 

laetus  veni,  I  came  gladly. 

i n v 1 1 1    discessimus,  we  departed  umoillingly. 

413  Ordinal  Numerals  are  more  common  in  Latin  than  in  English : 

anno  mil le si  mo,  in  the  year  1000. 

quart  us  annus  est,  it  is  going  on  four  years. 

COMPAEATIVES  AND  SUPERLATIVES 

414  The  Comparative  and  Superlative  include  several  shades  of 
meaning : 

1.  Positive.  magnus  great 

2.  Comparative.      major  somewhat  great 

rather  great 

more  great,  greater 

too  great 

3.  Superlative.        maximus  very  great 

most          great,  greatest 

4.  Superlative      (  vel  maximus         very          greatest 
strengthened.  (  quam  maximus   greatest  possible 

415  With  a  Comparative,  the  word  compared  is  either  connected 
by  quam  or,  less  often,  is  put  in  the  Ablative  (380,  381) : 

virtus  utilior  est  quam  scientia,)  virtue  is  more  useful 
virtus  s  c  i  e  n  t  i  a  utilior  est,  )     than  knowledge. 

416  A  few  Adjectives  of  Place  and  Order,  mostly  Superlatives, 
are  used  with  a  partitive  meaning. 

They  are  primus,  extremus;  summus,  medius,  infi- 
mus  (Imus) : 

prim  6  vere,  in  early  spring  (literally,  in  first  spring). 

extrema  aestate,  in  late  summer. 

s u m m a  arbor,  the  top  of  the  tree. 

in  media  urbe,  in  the  midst  of  the  city. 


THE  USES  OF  PRONOUNS  157 

417  prior,  primus,  postremus,  ultimus,   sometimes  have   the 
force  of  an  English  clause : 

primus  venit,  he  was-the-first  to  come  (he  came  the — 
first  one). 

418  This  use  of  primus  must  not  be  confused  with  the  mean- 
ing of  the  adverbs  primum  and  primo  : 

prlmum  venit,  he  came  for  the  first  time. 
prim 6  me  non  agnovit,  at  first  he  did  not  know  me. 


IV.    THE   USES  OF   PRONOUNS 
PERSONAL 

419  The  Personal  Pronoun  (137)  as  Subject  is  usu- 
ally not  expressed,  unless  it  is  emphatic  : 

feel,  /  did  it.          ego  fed,  it  was  I  ^vho  did  it. 

420  The  Genitives  mei,  tui,  nostri,  vestri,  are  usually  Object- 
ive (351),  but  nostrum  and  vestrum  are  usually  Genitives 
of  the  "Whole  (355) : 

memoria  mei  tua,  your  remembrance  of  me. 
oblitus  nostri,  forgetful  of  us. 
nemo  nostrum,  not  one  of  us. 

REFLEXIVE 

421  The  Reflexive  se  (138)  and  the  Possessive  suus 
(140)  are  used  to  refer  to  the  Subject. 

1.  They  usually  refer  to  the  Subject  of  the  clause  in 
which  they  stand : 

gladio  se  defendit,  he  defended  himself  with  a  sword. 
Brutus  amicum   suum   occidit,  Brutus  slew   his  own 
friend. 

Helvetios  in  suos  fines  revert!  jussit,  he  ordered  the 
Helvetians  to  return  into  their  own  territory. 


158  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

2.  When  in  a  subordinate  clause  (287)  they  sometimes 
refer  to  the  Subject  of  the  principal  clause.  This  is  regular 
in  Indirect  Discourse  (609). 

This  happens  when  the  main  thought  of  the  subordinate 
clause  refers  to  the  subject  of  the  principal  clause  : 
his  Caesar  mandat  ut  ad  se  revertantur,  Caesar  com- 
mands them  to  return  to  him. 

422  Sometimes  two  Reflexives  in  a  subordinate  infinitive  clause 
refer  one  to  the  subject  of  the  principal  and  one  to  the  sub- 
ject of  the  subordinate  clause : 

Ariovistus  respondit  neminem  secum  sine  sua  per- 
nicie  contendisse,  Ariovistus  answered  that  no  man  had  con- 
tended with  him  without  his  own  destruction. 

Here  secum  refers  to  A  r  i  o  v  i  s  t  u  s,  the  subject  of  re- 
spondit in  the  principal  clause,  and  sua  to  neminem  the 
subject  of  the  infinitive  contendisse  in  the  subordinate  clause. 

423  suus,  especially  when  combined  with  quisque,  is  sometimes 
used  to  refer  to  some  other  word  than  the  Subject : 

Hannibalem  sui  elves  e  civitate  ejecerunt,  his  oivn 

fellow-citizens  cast  out  Hannibal. 

jus  suum  cuique  tribuere,  to  give  every  one  his  due. 

POSSESSIVE 

424  The  Possessive  Pronoun  (139)  is  usually  omitted, 
unless  it  is  emphatic  : 

patrem  amisi,  /  lost  (my)  father. 
But  suo   loco  dicam,  /  shall  state  in  the  proper  place 

(its  oivn  place). 

me  a  sententia,  in  my  opinion. 

A  word  in  apposition  with  a  possessive  pronoun  is  put  in 
the  Genitive.  ipse,  solus,  unus,  omnis,  are  most  fre- 
quently used  in  this  way  : 

mea  unius  opera,  by  my  help  alone. 

in  tua  ipsius  epistola,  in  your  own  letter. 


THE  USES  OF  PRONOUNS  159 

SUBSTITUTES  FOR  RECIPROCAL  PRONOUNS 

425  Latin  has  no  Reciprocal  Pronoun  for  each  other,  one  another^ 

The  following  expressions  are  to  be  used  instead  : 

1.  inter  nos,  inter  vos,  inter  se  : 

obsides    inter    se   dare,    to  give   each   other  hostages 

(among  themselves). 

inter  nos  conjunct!   sumus,  we    are  attached  to  each 

other. 

2.  alter,  alius  or  neuter  repeated  in  a  different  case  : 
alter  a  1 1 e r u m  amat,  the  one  loves  the  other. 

alius  alii  subsidium  fert,  they  give  help  to  one  another. 

3.  A  noun  repeated  in  a  different  case  : 

apes  apium  sunt  simillimae,  lees  are  very  like   each 
other. 

DEMONSTRATIVE 

426  In  addition  to  the  meanings  of  hie,  iste,  ille,  already  ex- 
plained (141),  the  following  should  be  noticed  : 

1.  hie  refers  to  what  is  nearest,  ille  to  what  is  remote  : 

hie  dies,  to-day. 

haec  nox,  last  night  (if  spoken  in  the  morning). 

ille  sol,  yonder  sun. 

2.  hie  and  ille  in  contrast  often  mean  this  .  .  .  that,  the 
former.  .  .  the  latter : 

hoc  idem  est  quod  illud,  this  is  the  same  as  that. 
haec  in  nostra,  ilia  in  deorum  manu  sunt,  the  former 
is  in  our  hand,  the  latter  in  the  hand  of  the  gods. 

3.  ille  often  means  well-known,  famous  : 

ille  Demosthenes,  the  famous  Demosthenes. 
illud  Platonis,  that  noted  (saying)  of  Plato. 

4.  iste  often  indicates  contempt : 

ista  impudentia,  such  impudence! 


160  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

5.  The  missing  pronoun  of  the  third  person  is  supplied 
by  ille  or  is  (137,  144).  is  also  serves  as  the  regular 
antecedent  of  the  relative  pronoun  (299)  : 

is  fecit,  Tie  did  it. 

id,  quod  praedixT,  evenit,  that,  which  I  foretold,  has 
happened. 

427  Idem,  the  same  (145),  may  sometimes  be  translated  by  also, 
likewise  : 

quidquid  honestum,  idem  utile,  whatever  (is)  honorable 
(is)  also  expedient. 

INTENSIVE 

428  The   Intensive    ipse,   self  (146),   emphasizes   the   word    it 
modifies  : 

ipse  dixit,  (he)  h  imse  If  said. 

nosce  te  ipsum,  know  thyself. 

sapientia  ipsa  bona,  wisdom  in  itself  (is)  good. 

hoc  ipsum,  this  very  thing. 

decem  dies  i  p  s  I  ,  j  u  s  t  ten  days. 

ipse  aderat,  he  was  present  in  person. 

EELATIVE 

429  The  rules  for  the  Eelative  qui,  who,  have  been  given  in 
299-304. 

INDEFINITE 

430  For  a  list  of  Indefinite  Pronouns  see  149. 

431  quis,  aliquis,  quispiam,  and  quidam  are  indefinite  in  dif- 
ferent degrees  : 

si  quis  dixerit,  should  any  one  say.     Most  indefinite. 
aliquis  dixerit, 


dixerit  quispiam,  f  some  °ne  ma^  *«*    Less  i 
scriptor  quidam  narrat,  a  certain  writer  says.     Least 
indefinite. 


THE  USES  OF   PRONOUNS  161 

432  quisquam   and  the   pronominal   adjective   ullus   mean 
any  one  at  all.     They  are  used  mostly  in  negative,  interroga- 
tive and  conditional  sentences,  and  after  comparatives : 

neque   me   quisquam   agnovit,  and  not  a   soul  recog- 
nized me. 

an  quisquam  Croeso  dlvitior  fuit,  ivas  ever  any  one 
richer  than  Croesus  f 

si  quisquam,  ille  sapiens  fuit,  he  was  wise,  if  any  one 
(ever  was). 

taetrior  tyrannus  quam  quisquam  superiorum,  a  viler 
tyrant  than  any  of  his  predecessors. 

hostem  esse  in  Syria  negant  u  1 1  u  m ,  they  say  that  there 
is  not  an  enemy  in  Syria. 

433  quisque,  each  one,  is  used  particularly 

1.  In  relative  and  demonstrative  sentences  : 

quod  cuique  obtigit,  id   quisque  teneat,  what  each 
one  has  got,  that  let  him  keep. 

mens  cuj  usque,  is  est  quisque,  each  one's  mind  is 
each  one's  self. 

2.  With  the  reflexives  se  and  suus  (421) : 

se  quisque  diligit,  each  one  loves  himself. 

3.  Following  superlatives  and  unus  : 

optimus  quisque,  all  the  lest  (each  lest  one). 
unus  quisque  vestrum,  every  one  of  you. 

4.  Following  ordinal  numerals  : 

tertio  quoque  anno,  every  third  year. 

434  The  negative  of  quisquam  is  nemo,  nobody,  and  of  ullus 
is  nullus,  no,  none,     nemo  is  always  used  as  a  noun  and 
nullus  generally  as  an  adjective  : 

neminem  video,  I  see  nobody. 
null  a  causa,  no  reason. 


162  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

435  The  genitive  and  ablative  of  nemo  are  regularly  supplied 
by  nullius  and  nullo. 

neminem  laesit ;  nullius  aures  violavit,  he  has  injured 
nobody ;  lie  has  shocked  no  one's  ears. 

PRONOMINAL  ADJECTIVES 

436  The  principal  Pronominal  Adjectives  (151)  are 

alius,  alter,  ullus,  nullus, 

uter,  neuter,  ceteri,  reliqui, 

uterque. 

437  alius,  another,  and  alter,  the  other,  have  various  uses. 

1.  Singly: 

Idem  et  alius,  the  same  and  (yet)  another. 

alter  Nero,  a  second  Nero. 

claudus  alter 6  pede,  lame  in  one  foot. 

2.  In  Pairs,  meaning  each  other,  one  .  .  .  another,  some 
.  .  .  others  : 

alter  alt e rum  amat,  each  loves  the  other  (Eeciprocal 
use,  425). 

alii  alio   modo   vivunt,  some  live  one  ivay,  some  an- 
other. 
alii  resistunt,  fugiunt  alii,  some  resist,  others  flee. 

438  Notice  the  following  plurals  : 

alii,  others          ceteri,  all  the  others          reliqui,  the  rest,  the 

remaining  (ones) 

439  Also  these  uses  : 

uterque,  each  (of  two)     utrique,  both     ambo,  both  together 


THE  USES  OF  THE   VERB  163 


V.    THE    USES    OF    THE    VERB 

The  Finite  Verb 

440  The  various  uses  of  Voice,  Mood,  Tense,  Per- 
son, and  Number  make  up  the  Syntax  of  the 
Finite  Verb  (156). 

441  In  finding  the  place  where  any  form  of  the  finite  verb  oc- 
curs, pick  out  (1)  the  Tense  first,  then  (2)  the  Mood  and  (3) 
Voice,  and  after  that  (4)  the  Person  and  (5)  Number. 

1.  Tense  2.  Mood  3.  Voice  4.  Person  5.  Number 
Cloves  [*s  Present  Indicative  Active  Third  Singular 
fefuflove  \ is  Presenfc  Subjunctive  Active  First  Plural 

I.    VOICE,   PEKSON,  NUMBEK 

442  The  principal  uses  of  Voice  (158),  Person  (163),  and  Number 
(162)  have  been  explained. 

VOICE 

In  addition,  the  following  special  uses  of  Voice  should 
be  noticed  : 

1.  The   Active  Voice  of  transitive  verbs  is   sometimes 
used 

Absolutely — alone,  with  no  object  implied  :  amat,  he  is  in 
love,  audio,  /  am  listening. 

Reflexively — with  or  without  a  reflexive  pronoun  :  terra 
movit  (se),  the  earth  quaked  (moved  itself). 

Both  these  uses  may  be  considered  Intransitive. 

2.  The  Active  Voice  of  intransitive  verbs  is  sometimes 
used  transitively. 


164:  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

Thus  rideo,  /  laugh,  is  usually  intransitive,  but  is  transi- 
tive in  quid  rides,  what  are  you  laughing  at  f 

3.  The  Passive  Yoice  sometimes  has  a  reflexive  meaning : 

ACTIVE  REFLEXIVE  PASSIVE 

lavo,  /  wash       lavor,  /  bathe  (wash       lavor,  /  am 
myself)  washed 

4.  Sometimes  intransitive  verbs  have  a  few  Passive  forms. 
These  are  always  used  with  an  impersonal  meaning  (233.  3) : 
pugnatum  est,  there  was  fighting  (literally,  it  was  fought). 

II.   TENSE 

443  Every  Tense  shows  two  things : 

First,  the  Progress  of  the  action,  either 

1.  Defined  as  Going  On  or  Completed,  or 

2.  Undefined. 

Second,  the  Time  of  the  action,  as  Past,  Pres- 
ent, or  Future. 

Thus  in  the  Imperfect  Tense  dicebam,  I  was  saying, 
the  action  of  the  verb  is  Defined  as  Going  On  in  Past 
Time. 

In  the  Present  Tense  dlco,  /  am  saying,  the  action  of 
the  verb  is  Defined  as  Going  On  in  Present  Time,  but  when- 
ever dlco  means  simply  I  say,  the  action  of  the  verb  is  Un- 
defined in  Present  Time. 

PRINCIPAL  AND  HISTORICAL  TENSES 

444  The  Principal  Tenses  include  the  Present,  Pres- 
ent Perfect  (160),  Future,  and  Future  Perfect. 

The  Historical  Tenses  include  the  Imperfect, 
Historical  Perfect  (160),  and  Pluperfect. 


THE  USES  OF  THE  VERB  165 

TENSES  OF  THE  INDICATIVE 
Present  Indicative 

445  The    Present   Indicative    states   the  action  of 
the  verb  as  going  on  or  as  undefined  in  pres- 
ent time. 

Going  On  :     dico,  / am  saying          quid  f a c i s ?  what  are 

you  doing? 
Undefined:    dico,  I  say  bene  est,  it  is  well. 

446  It  is  also  used 

1.  For  what  is  generally  true  or  customary  : 

Ira  furor  brevis  est,  anger  is  a  brief  madness. 
Ciceronis  orationes  in  scholls  leguntur,  Cicero's  ora- 
tions are  read  in  the  schools. 

2.  For  attempted  action  : 

penculum  vitant,  they  are  trying  to  avoid  (literally, 
are  avoiding}  danger. 

3.  In  citing  the  statements  or  opinions  of  writers  (Literary 
Present)  : 

Plato  disputat  animam  esse  immortalem,  Plato  ar- 
gues the  soul  is  immortal. 

447  4.    To   express   past   or   future   time   as   viewed    from   the 
present. 

(1)  Past  action  in  a  lively  or  present  manner  (Historical 
Present)  : 

mllites  incedere  jubet,   he   ordered   (literally,   orders) 
the  soldiers  to  advance. 

Here  belongs  the  use  of   dum,  while,  with  the  Present 
Tense  : 

dum  haec  geruntur,  while  these  things  were  (literally, 
are)  being  attended  to. 
12 


166  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

(2)  Past  action  continued  into  the  present. 

This  use  occurs  in  connection  with  the  adverbs  jam,  now 
(at  last),  jam  diu,  now  for  a  long  time,  tarn  diu,  so  long,  jam 
pridem,  now  long  since,  and  jam  dudum,  now  at  length  : 
jam  video,  now  (at  last)  I  see. 

tarn  diu    Germania  vincitur,   so  long  is   Germany   in 
being  conquered. 

(3)  Future  action  in  advance  :  si  vivo,  if  Hive. 

Imperfect  Indicative 

448  The  Imperfect  Indicative  states  the  action  of 
the  verb  as  going  on  in  past  time : 

librum  legebam,  I  was  reading  a  booh 
ut  hen  dicebam,  as  I  was  saying  yesterday. 

449  It  is  also  used 

1.  For  repeated  or  customary  action  : 

consules    quotannis    creabantur,    the   consuls    were 
chosen  yearly. 

2.  For  action  attempted  or  begun  : 

eum  in  exsilium  ejiciebam,  I  was  trying  to  drive 
him  into  exile. 

3.  Instead  of  the  Present  Tense  in  letters  (Epistolary  Im- 
perfect) : 

cum  haec  scribebam,in  exspectatione  erant  omnia, 

as  I  write  this,  everything  looks  hopeful.     See  456,  458. 

4.  For  earlier  past  action  continued  in  the  more  recent 
past. 

This  use  occurs  with  jam,  jam  diu,  and  similar  adverbs, 
as  it  does  in  the  Present  Tense  (447)  : 
jam  dudum  flebam,  long  had  I  been  weeping. 

5.  In  descriptions : 

oppidum  Alesia  erat  in  colle  summo,  the  town  (of)  Alesia 
was  on  the  top  of  a  hill. 


THE  USES  OF  THE  VERB  167 

Future  Indicative 

450  The  Future  Indicative  states  the  action  of  the 
verb  as  going  on  or  as  undefined  in  future  time : 

Going  on :     scribam,  /  shall  be  writing. 
Undefined  :  scribam,  /  shall  write. 

451  It  is  sometimes  used  with  an  imperative  meaning  : 

tu  nihil  dices,  you  will  say  nothing. 

Perfect  Indicative 

452  The  Perfect  Indicative  has  two  separate  uses : 

1.  Present  Perfect :       amavl,  /  have  loved. 

2.  Historical  Perfect :  amavl,  /  loved. 

1.   Present  Perfect 

453  The  Present  Perfect  states  the  action  of  the 
verb  as  completed  at  the  present  time.     It  is 
translated  with  have : 

quod  scrips!,  scrips!,  what  I  have  written,  I  have  written. 

2.  Historical  Perfect 

454  The  Historical  Perfect  states  the  action  of  the 
verb  as  undefined  in  past  time : 

vem,  v!d!,  v!c!,  /  came  and  saw  and  overcame. 

455  The  Perfect  of   some  inceptive  (214)  and  defective  verbs 
(230)  is  translated  by  the  Present  Tense : 

nov!,  I  know.  memim,  I  remember. 

The  Pluperfect  and  Future  Perfect  of  these  verbs  are  to 
be  translated  in  a  simple  past  and  future  sense : 

noveram,  /  knew.  novero,  /  shall  know. 

456  In  letters  (449.  3,  458)  the  Perfect  is  sometimes  used  instead 
of  the  Present  Tense  (Epistolary  Perfect) : 

tertiam  ad  te  hanc  epistulam  scrips!,  this  (is)  the  third 
letter  I'm  writing  you. 


168 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


Pluperfect  Indicative 

457  The  Pluperfect  Indicative  states  the  action  of 
the  verb  as  completed  in  past  time : 

fuerat  inimicus,  he  had  been  (my]  enemy. 

458  In  letters  (449.  3,  456)  the  Pluperfect  is  sometimes  used  in- 
stead of  the  Present  Perfect  (Epistolary  Pluperfect)  : 

ad  tuas  omnes  epistulas  rescrlpseram,  I  have  re- 
plied to  all  your  letters. 

Future  Perfect  Indicative 

459  The  Future  Perfect  Indicative  states  the  action 
of  the  verb  as  completed  in  future  time  : 

dicam  tibi,  cum  ipse  audlvero,  I'll  tell  you,  when  I 
hear  myself  (literally,  shall  have  heard). 

460  Table  showing  the  Chief  Uses  of  Tenses  of  the  Indicative 


PROGRESS  OF 
ACTION 

TIME  OF   ACTION 

Present 

Past 

Future 

I.  Defined 

GOING  ON 

PRESENT 

dice 

/  am  saying 

IMPERFECT 

dicebam 

I  was  saying 

FUTURE 

dicam 

I  shall  be  saying 

1 

COMPLETED 

PRESENT    PERF. 

dixl 

/  have  said 

PLUPERFECT 

dixeram 

/  had  said 

FUTURE  PERFECT 

dlxero 

I  shall  have  said 

II.  Undefined 

PRESENT 

dico 

I  say 

HISTORICAL    PERF. 

dixl 

I  said 

FUTURE 

dicam 

/  shall  say 

THE  USES  OF  THE  VERB  169 

TENSES  OF  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE 
I.    IN  PRINCIPAL  CLAUSES 

461  In  independent  sentences  and  principal  clauses 
(287)  the  four  tenses  of  the  Subjunctive  (160)  are 
usually  like  the  same  tenses  of  the  Indicative. 
But  notice  that 

1.  The    Present    Subjunctive    regularly   has    a    future 
meaning : 

man  eat,  may  he  stay,  let  him  stay. 

2.  The  Imperfect  Subjunctive  sometimes  has  a  present 
meaning : 

utinam  ne  haec  scriberem,  would  I  were  not  writ- 
ing this! 

3.  The    Perfect    Subjunctive    sometimes   has  a    future 
meaning : 

ne  mortem  timueris,  do  not  fear  death. 
II.    IN  SUBORDINATE  CLAUSES 

462  In  a  subordinate  clause  (287)  the  tense  of  the 
Subjunctive  is  said  to  follow  the  tense  of  the 
principal  clause.     This  is  called  the  Sequence 
of  Tenses.     The  general  rule  for  the  Sequence 
of  Tenses  is : 

Principal  Tenses  follow  Principal ; 
Historical  Tenses  follow  Historical. 


1TO  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

463  TABLE  SHOWING  THE  SEQUENCE  OF  TENSES 

1.  Principal  Tenses  following  Principal 

PRIN.  CLAUSE      SUB.  CLAUSE 

dlcam      l««W«»tt"»      ^ll  say  )«**/»** 

dixl  I  have  said  or 

dlxero     j  «md  Senserim    I  shall  have  said  \  what  T  hm'e  "Wu3ht 

2.  Historical  Tenses  following  Historical 

dlcebam   \  quid  sentlrem     /  was  saying        \  what  I  thought 
dlxl  or  I  said  or 

dlxeram  )  quid  sensissem    I  had  said  )  what  I  had  thought 

464  Following  a  Principal  Tense : 

1.  The  present  Subjunctive  expresses  the  same  time  as 
that  of  the  principal  clause  : 

die  6  quid  s  e  n  t  i  a  m ,  /  say  (now)  what  I  think  (now). 
dlcam  quid  sentiam,  /  shall  say  (then)  what  I  think 
(then). 

2.  The  Perfect  Subjunctive  expresses  time  earlier  than 
that  of  the  principal  clause  : 

dlcam  quid  s  e  n  s  e  r  i  m ,  I  shall  say  (then)  what  I  thought 
(before  that  time). 

465  Following  a  Historical  Tense : 

1.  The  Imperfect  Subjunctive  expresses  the  same  time  as 
that  of  the  principal  clause  : 

dlcebam  quid   sentlrem,   /  was  saying  (then)  what  I 
was  thinking  (then). 

2.  The   Pluperfect   Subjunctive   expresses    time  earlier 
than  that  of  the  principal  clause  : 

dlcebam  quid  sensissem,  /  was  saying  (then)  what  I 
had  thought  (before  that  time). 


THE   USES  OF  THE  VERB  171 

Apparent  Variations  in  the  Sequence  of  Tenses 

466  These  variations  occur  mostly  because  of  (I)— 
the  frequent  historical  use  of  the  Perfect,  and 
(2)  the  construction  of  certain  Conditional  Sen- 
tences (471). 

467  1.  The  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  commonly  fol- 
low the  Perfect  Indicative,  since  it  is  generally  used  as  a  his- 
torical tense — often  in  instances  where  it  may  be  translated 
with  have.     This  is  regular  in  Clauses  of  Purpose  (506)  : 

convocavi  vos  ut  pauca  dicerem,  I  have  called 
you  together  that  I  might  say  a  few  (tvords). 

468  2.  The  Perfect  Subjunctive,  although  it  follows  a  principal 
tense,  usually  refers  to  past  action  : 

dicam  quid  senserim,  / shall  say  what  I  thought. 

469  3.  The  Perfect  Subjunctive  often  (and  the  Present  Subjunc- 
tive rarely)  follows  a  historical  tense  in  Clauses  of  Result 
(519) : 

ita  quievit  ut  eo  tempore  omm  Neapoli  fuerit,  he 

kept  so  quiet  that  he  stayed  all  that  time  at  Naples. 
Verres  Siciliam  ita  p  e  r  d  i  d  i  t  ut  ea  restitui  non  p  o  s  - 
sit,   Verres  so  ruined  Sicily  that  it  cannot  be  restored. 

470  4.  The  Historical  Present  (447)  usually  behaves  as  a  histor- 
ical, but  sometimes  as  a  principal  tense : 

ut  januam  clauderent,  imperat,  he  ordered  (them)  to 
shut  the  door. 

hortatur  ut  arma  capiant,  he  exhorted  (them)  to  take 
up  arms. 

471  5.  Conditional  Sentences  contrary  to  fact  (557)  are  not  gov- 
erned by  the  general  rule  for  the  Sequence  of  Tenses  (462) : 

honestum  tale  est  ut,  vel  si  Ignorarent  id  homines, 
tamen  laudabile  e  s  s  e  t ,  virtue  is  such  (a  thing)  that,  even 
if  men  were  ignorant  of  it,  it  would  still  b e  glorious. 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 

Here  the  Conditional  Sentence  contrary  to  fact  is 
si  Ignorarent  id  homines,  tamen  laudabile  esset. 

The  verbs  Ignorarent  and  esset  are  in  the  Imperfect 
Subjunctive  according  to  the  rules  for  Conditional  Sentences 
(557).  They  stay  in  the  Imperfect  Subjunctive,  although 
they  are  in  a  subordinate  clause  following  a  principal  clause 
whose  verb  (est)  is  in  a  principal  tense. 

Future  Time  in  Subordinate  Subjunctive  Clauses 

472  As  the  Subjunctive  has  no  Future  or  Future 
Perfect,  the  place  of  these  missing  tenses  is  filled 
by  the  existing  subjunctive  tenses — especially 
after  principal  clauses  which  suggest  future  time. 

In  this  construction  either  the  regular  or  the  periphrastic 
form  (188)  may  be  used.  The  periphrastic  form  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred when  future  time  is  to  be  expressed  very  definitely. 

In  Regular  Form 

To  fill  the  place  of  the  missing  Future,  the  Present  is 
used  after  principal  tenses  and  the  Imperfect  after  historical 
tenses : 

quaero  quid  facias,  I  ask  what  you  will  do. 
quaeslvl  quid  f  a  c  e  r  e  s ,  / aslced  what  you  would  do. 

To  fill  the  place  of  the  missing  Future  Perfect,  the  Per- 
fect is  used  after  principal  tenses  and  the  Pluperfect  after 
historical  tenses : 

quaero  quid  feceris,  I  ask  what  you  will  have  done. 
quaesivi  quid  f  e  c  i  s  s  e  s ,  /  asked  what  you  would  have 
done. 

In  Periphrastic  Form 

quaero  quid  facturus  sis,  I  ask  what  you  are  going- 
to-do. 

quaeslvl  quid  facturus  esses,  I  asked  what  you  were 
going-to-do. 


THE   USES  OF  THE  VERB  173 

TENSES  OF  THE  IMPERATIVE 

473  As  all   commands  and   requests    are  used   of 
future  acts,  the  two  tenses  of  the  Imperative 
always  have  a  future  meaning. 

When  used  together,  the  Present  refers  to  an  imminent 
and  the  Future  to  a  later  future : 

crede  et  credito,  believe  this  and  then  believe  (if  you  can). 

474  Generally  the  Present  Imperative  is  used  : 

vale,  fare  (thee)  well  valete,  fare  (ye)  well. 

divide  et  impera,  divide  and  conquer. 
cave  canem,  look  out  for  the  dog. 

475  The  Future  Imperative  is  found — 

1.  In   sentences   stating   an    expected   result   or  conclu- 
sion: 

si  iste  Ibit,  It  6,  if  that  (fellow)  goes,  you  shall  go  (too). 
ubi  nihil  erit  quod  scribas,  id  ipsum  scrlbito,  when 
there  is  nothing  for  you  to  write,  (then)  you'll  write  just 
that. 

2.  In  general  formal  statements,  such  as  laws,  wills,  rules, 
and  maxims : 

hominem  mortuum  in  urbe  ne  sepelito,  thou  shalt 

not  bury  a  dead  man  within  the  city. 

salus  populi  suprema  lex  esto,  let  the  welfare  of  the 

people  b  e  the  highest  law. 

Ignoscito  saepe  alteri,  numquam  tibi,  forgive  your 

brother  often,  yourself  never. 

III.   MOOD 

476  Mood  (159)  is  the  manner  of  stating  the  action 
of  the  Verb.     The  action  may  be  stated— 


174  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

1.  As  Really  Happening.     The  Mood  of  Fact 

(Indicative). 

2.  As  Thought  Of.     The  Mood  of  Will,  Desire, 

Possibility  (Subjunctive). 

3.  As   Demanded.      The   Mood   of  Command 

(Imperative). 

A.    IN    PKINCIPAL    CLAUSES 
INDICATIVE  MOOD 

477  The  Indicative  (159)  always  expresses  the  action 
of  the  verb  as  a  fact. 

The  fact  may  be  expressed  in  three  ways : 
Asserted :    is  me  quaerit,  he  seeks  Tine. 
Asked :        quis  me  quaerit,  who  seeks  me  f 
Supposed :  si  quis  me  quaerit,  if  any  one  seeks  me. 

478  The  Indicative  is  used  mostly  in  independent 
sentences   or    principal    clauses.     But    it  also 
occurs   in   subordinate    clauses   which   express 
facts : 

non  is  sum  q u I  f u I ,  Pm  not  the  man  I  was. 

quod  scrips!,  scrips!,  what  I  have  written,  I  have 

written. 

479  The  English  ought,  might  (in  sense  of  can  or  could),  and  it 
would  be  usually  become  Indicatives  with  the  Present  In- 
finitive : 

d  e  b  e  6  tacere,  I  ought  to  keep  silent. 

debebam  tacere,  I  ought  to  have  kept  silent. 

possum  dicere,  /  might  say. 

potu!  d!cere,  I  might  have  said. 

difficile  erat  dicere,  it  would  be  hard  to  say. 


THE  USES  OF  THE   VERB  175 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD 

480  The  Subjunctive  (159)  in  independent  sentences 
or  principal  clauses  expresses  the  action  of  the 
verb,  not  as  a  fact,  but  as  thought  of  in  one  of 
three  ways: 

1.  As  Willed:        Volitive  Subjunctive. 

2.  As  Desired  :       Optative  Subjunctive. 

3.  As  Possible  :      Conditional  Subjunctive. 

I.   Volitive  Subjunctive 
[Subjunctive  of  Will] 

481  The  Volitive  Subjunctive  states  the  action  as 
willed.     It  is  used 

1.  In  commanding:    Jussive  Subjunctive. 

2.  In  conceding  :         Concessive  Subjunctive. 

482  1.  Jussive    Subjunctive,   used   in  commanding, 
like  the  Imperative  Mood  (495) : 

First  Person — only  in  Plural  of  Present  Tense  : 

vlvamus  atque  amemus,  let  us  live  and  love. 
This  is  the  so-called  Hortatory  Subjunctive. 

Second  and  Third  Persons — generally  in  Present  Tense  (492) : 

cautus  sis,  you  must  le  careful. 

suum  quisque   no  scat    ingenium,   let  each   learn   Ms 

own  disposition. 

nomina  declinare  puerl  sciant,  let  loys  know  (how)  to 

decline  nouns. 

483  2.  Concessive  Subjunctive,  used  in  conceding: 

The  tenses  used  are  the  Present  and  Perfect : 


176  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

ne  sit  summum  malum  dolor:  malum  certe  est,  (grant) 

pain  i  s  not  the  worst  evil :  an  evil  it  surely  is. 

fruatur  sane  hoc  solatio,  that  comfort,  of  course,  he  may 

take. 

II.   Optative  Subjunctive 

[Subjunctive  of  Desire] 

484  The  Optative  Subjunctive  states  the  action  as  a 
wish  or  desire. 

The  tenses  used  are  the  Present,  Imperfect,  and  Pluper- 
fect. 

The  Present  states  the  wish  as  possible  : 

dl  istaec  prohibeant,  may  the  gods  avert  that! 
utinam  ilium  diem  videam,  may  I  see  that  day  I 

The  Imperfect  states  the  wish  as  unfulfilled  in  present 
time : 

utinam  Cyrus  viveret,  0  that  Cyrus  were  alive ! 

The  Pluperfect  states  the  wish  as  unfulfilled  in  past 
time : 

utinam  tacuissem,  0  that  I  had  Tcept  still! 

NOTE  :  utinam,  0  that  or  would  that,  is  often  used  with 
the  Present,  regularly  with  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect,  in 
the  optative  subjunctive. 

///.  Conditional  (in  a  few  cases  Potential)  Subjunctive 
[Subjunctive  of  Possibility] 

485  This  Subjunctive  includes  the 

1.  Potential  Subjunctive,  which  states  the 
action  as  that  which  can  be. 

This  use  is  not  common.     The  tense  is  the  Present  or  the 
Perfect  with  a  present  meaning  : 
dicat  or  dixerit  aliquis,  someone  may  say. 


THE  USES  OF  THE  VERB  177 

frangas,  potius  quam  corrigas,  quae  in  pravum 
induruerunt,  you  can  break,  easier  than  mend,  what 
has  hardened  into 


The  Potential  Subjunctive  suggests  possibility,  but  possi- 
bility of  only  one  kind  (what  can  be),  and  so  it  easily  dis- 
appears in  the  general 

486  2.  Conditional  Subjunctive,  which  states  the 
action  of  the  verb  as  possible  in  any  way— 
that  is,  (^possible  (2)  on  any  condition. 

487  (1)  The  possible  action  is  always  stated  in  the 
principal  clause  : 

hoc  dixissem,  I  should  have  said  so  and  so. 

488  (2)  The  condition  of  its  being  possible  may  be 

1.  Omitted,  but  understood  : 

hoc  dixissem,  /  should  have  said  so  and  so. 
Here  -some   such   condition,  as   si   adfuissem,  if  I  had 
been  there,  or  si  dixissem,  if  /  had  spoken,  is  understood, 
though  not  stated. 

2.  Suggested  in  the  principal  clause  : 

pace  tua  dixerim,  by  your  leave  I  would  say. 
Here  the  condition  is  suggested  in  pace  tua,  meaning  if 
I  have  your  leave. 

3.  Expressed  by  a  subordinate  clause : 

si  adesset,  bene  esset,  if  he  were  here,  it  would  be  well. 
Here  the  condition  is  expressed  by  the  subordinate  clause 
si  adesset.     This  is  in  the  regular  form  of  the  Conditional 
Sentence  (557). 

489  The  Conditional   Subjunctive  in  a  leading  clause  is  there- 
fore nothing  but  the  conclusion  of  a  Conditional  Sentence 
(551),  in  which  the  condition  is  either  omitted,  suggested,  or 
expressed. 


178  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

490  The  Subjunctive  used  in  polite  or  cautious  statements  may 
be  considered  a  Conditional  Subjunctive.     This  is  common 
with  velim,  nolim,  malim  (227)  : 

pace tua  dixerim,  ~by  your  leave,  I  would  say. 
velim  mihi  ignoscas,  /  wish  you  would  forgive  me. 
veil  em  me  ad  cenam  invltavisses,  /  wish  you  had 
asked  me  to  dinner. 
vix  ausim  dicere,  I  hardly  dare  say. 

NEGATIVE  SUBJUNCTIVE  SENTENCES 

491  The  negative  word  used 

I.  With  the  Volitive  and  Optative  Subjunctives 
is  ne  : 

Volitive  : 

n e  desperemus,  let  us  not  despair  (Hortatory). 
ne  audeant,  let  them  not  dare  (Jussive). 
ne  sit  summum  malum,  (grant]  it  is  not  the  worst  evil 
(Concessive). 

Optative : 
utinam  natus  n  e  essem,  ivould  I  had  not  been  born ! 

II.  With  the  Conditional  Subjunctive  is  non  : 
n 6 n  facile  dixerim,  / could  not  easily  say. 

The  Negative  Jussive  Subjunctive 

492  A  negative  command  or  prohibition  in  the  Second  Person  of 
the  Subjunctive  occurs  chiefly  in  poetry.     The  Present  or 
(oftener)  the  Perfect  is  used  : 

n  e  me  attigas,  don't  touch  me. 
tu  ne  feceris,  don't  you  do  (it). 

THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  IN  RHETORICAL  QUESTIONS  (283) 

493  The  Subjunctive  is  found  in  questions  of  doubt,  disbelief, 
and  disdain.     The  negative  is  non. 


THE  USES  OF  THE   VERB  1Y9 

Doubt : 

quid  a g a m ,  what  am  I  to  do  f 
quid  a g e r e m ,  what  was  I  to  do  f 

Disbelief : 

quis  p u t e t ,  who  would  s upp ose? 

cur  n 6 n  liceat,  why  should  it  not  he  alloived ? 

Disdain — sometimes  introduced  by  ut  or  uti : 

te  ut  ulla  res  f  ran  gat,  anything  h  re  ale  you  down  ? 

SUBJUNCTIVE  WITH  INDEFINITE  SECOND  PERSON 

494  The  Second  Person  Singular  of  the  Subjunctive  is  sometimes 
used  with  an  indefinite  meaning.     Here  you  has  the  force 

of  one : 

memoria    minuitur    nisi  earn    exerceas,    the  memory 
weakens,  unless  one  exercises  it. 
videres,  one  could  see. 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD 

495  The  Imperative  (159)  states  the  action  of  the 
verb  as  a  command  or  request. 

Any  kind  of  request  maj  be  thus  expressed : 

An  Order :  I  curre,  puer,    go,  hoy  !  run  along  I 

Exhortation:       ora  et  labora,  ivork  and  pray. 
Prayer  :  audl  Jupiter,    hear  thou,  0  Jove  ! 

Comic  Bequest:  abi,  ludis  me,   go  away!  you're  fooling  me. 

496  Negative  commands,  or  prohibitions  (see  492),  may  be  ex- 

by: 

1.  noli  or  nollte  with  the  Infinitive : 
noli  timere,  fear  not. 

2.  ne  with  Imperative  : 

ne  cede  malls,  yield  not  to  the  ills  (of  life). 


180  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

3.  Imperatives  such  as  cave^  beware,  fac  or  vide,  see  to 
it,  followed  by  ne  with  the  Subjunctive  : 

cave  ne  eas,  (look  out,)  don't  go. 

fac  ne  aliud  quid  cures,  see  you  attend  to  nothing  else. 

B.    IN  SUBOKDINATE   CLAUSES 

497  The  Moods  in  subordinate  clauses  are  the  In- 
dicative and  Subjunctive.     Generally  the  Sub- 
junctive is  used.     The  Indicative  occurs  only 
in  clauses  of  fact  (478). 

NOTE  :  This  is  the  principal  use  of  the  Subjunctive,  as 
the  name  indicates  (sub-junctus,  sub-joined,  dependent).  Its 
meaning  in  subordinate  clauses  is  the  same  as  in  principal 
clauses,  or  is  derived  from  that  meaning. 

I.    USES  OF  SUBORDINATE  CLAUSES 

498  A  subordinate  clause  (287)  taken  as  a  whole,  is 
construed  like  a  single  word.     It  is  used 

1.  As  a  Noun  (Substantive  Clause) — usually 
as  the  Subject  or  Object  of  the  verb  in  the 
principal  clause  : 

saepe  fit   ut    homines    fallantur,   it  often  happens 
that  men  are  deceived. 

Here  the  Substantive  Clause  ut  homines  falluntur  is  the 
Subject  of  fit. 

impero  tibi  ut  abeas,  I  order  you  to  depart. 

Here  the  Substantive  Clause  ut  abeas  is  the  Object  of 
impero. 

499  Substantive  Clauses  are  also  used  as  Appositives  (291)?  and 
occasionally  in  other  constructions : 


THE  USES  OF  THE  VERB  181 

hoc  praestamus  fens,  quod  colloquimur  inter 
nos,  we  are  better  than  the  beasts  in  this,  that  we  can 
talk  ivith  each  other  (Appositive). 

oro  te,  virum  te  praebeas,  1  pray  you,  show  your- 
self a  man  (Accusative  of  Thing,  505). 

500  2.  As  an  Adjective  (Attributive  Clause) : 

pontem,  qui  erat  ad  Genavam,  jubet  rescind!,  he  or- 
ders the  bridge,  which  was  near  Geneva,  to  be  cut  down. 

Here  the  Clause  qui  erat  ad  Genavam  acts  as  an  Adjec- 
tive and  describes  the  noun  pontem. 

501  3.  As  an  Adverb  (Adverbial  Clause) : 

cum  sis  mortalis,  mortalia  cures,  since  you  are 
mortal,  care  for  mortal  (things). 

Here  the  Clause  cum  sis  mortalis  acts  as  an  Adverb  of 
Cause  and  modifies  the  verb  cures. 

II.  FOEMS  OF  SUBOEDINATE  CLAUSES 

502  Subordinate  clauses  are  joined  to  the  principal 
clause  by  an   introducing   word.     The   intro- 
ducing word  is  either  a  Conjunction,  a  Kela- 
tive,  or  an  Interrogative  : 

1.  Conjunction:     rogo  ut  venias,  /  ask  that 

you  come. 

2.  Relative:  bis  dat,  qui  cito  dat,  who 

gives  quickly,  gives  twice. 

3.  Interrogative  :  quaero  q  u  i  s  dederit,  /  ask 

who  has  given  (if). 

I.    CONJUNCTIONAL  CLAUSES 

503  Conjunctional   clauses  are   introduced  by  the 
Subordinate  Conjunctions  (254-261). 

13 


182  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

Transition  to  the  Conjunctional  Clause 

504  Subordinate  clauses  without  a  conjunction  often  occur  after 
verbs  expressing  a  Wish,  Command,  or  Need  : 

1.  velim,  nolim,  malim  ;  vellem,  nollem,  mallem. 

2.  The  Imperatives  fac  and  cave. 

3.  licet,  oportet,  necesse  est. 

4.  Sometimes  after  volo,  nolo,  malo  and  verbs  of  Asking 
or  Commanding. 

velim  dicas,  /  wish  you  would  tell. 

fac  me  ames,  see  (that)  you  love  me. 

condemnetur  necesse  est,  be  condemned  he  must. 

rogo  hoc,  dicet,  (if)  I  ask  this,  he  will  say. 

oro  te,  virum  te  praebeas,  I  pray  you,  show  yourself  a  man. 

505  Such  sentences  were  formed  by  huddling  together  two  inde- 
pendent sentences  without  change  of  form.     Thus   oro   te 
virum  te  praebeas  easily  falls  apart  into  the  two  sentences 
oro  te,  I  pray  you,  and  virum  te  praebeas,  show  yourself  a 
man  (482).     But  when  the  two  are  put  together,  oro  becomes 
the  leading  verb  which  governs  te  as  Accusative  of  the  Per- 
son and  the  subordinate  Substantive  Clause  (498)  virum  te 
praebeas  like  an  Accusative  of  the  Thing  (318). 

1.  CLAUSES  OF  PURPOSE 

506  Clauses  of  Purpose  are  introduced  by  ut  (utl) 
or  quo,  that,  or  by  ne  or  quominus,  that  not, 
and  always  take  the  Subjunctive. 

impero  tibi  ut  abeas,  I  order  you  to  depart  (that  you 
depart). 

praesidia  disponit  quo  facilius  hostes  prohibean- 
tur,  he  stations  guards  that  the  enemy  may  be  more  eas- 
ily repelled. 

oravit  ne  enuntiare  t ,  he  legged  that  he  would  not  telL 
quid  obstat  quominus  sit  beatus,  what  is-to-keep  (him) 
from  being  happy? 


THE  USES  OF  THE  VERB  183 

507  The  usual  introducing  word  is  ut  or  (in  negative  clauses)  ne. 
quo  (—  ut  eo,  that  thereby)  is  an  Ablative  of  Means,  and  is_ 
regularly  used  when  the  clause  contains  a  Comparative  word 
or   suggestion,      quominus   (that   thereby  .  .  .  not)    is   the 
negative  of  quo.     It  is  used  after  verbs  of  Hindering,  and 
may  be  translated  from. 

508  ut  ne  sometimes  occurs  as  a  strengthened  form  instead  of  ne  : 
u  t  n  e  quid  agamus,  that  we  may  not  do  anything. 

ut  non  occurs  only  when  the  non  belongs  to  some  one  word 
and  not  to  the  whole  clause. 

ut  non  e  j  e  c  t  u  s  sed  invltatus  Ivisse  videaris,  that  you 
may  seem  to  have  departed,  not  (as  one)  e xp etled,  but  in- 
vited. 

This  rhetorical  use  must  not  be  confused  with  the  use  of 
ut  non  in  introducing  Clauses  of  Eesult  (519). 

509  Clauses  of  Purpose  are  either  Substantive  or 
Adverbial. 

510  I.  Substantive   clauses  of  Purpose  fill  out  or 
complete  what  is  implied  in  the  leading  verb. 

Such  clauses  are  used  chiefly  as  Object  of  the  leading  verb : 

suls  ut  idem  faciant,  imperat,  he  orders  his  (men)  to 
do  the  same  thing. 

Here  ut  idem  faciant  is  a  Substantive  Clause  of  Pur- 
pose, used  as  the  Object  of  imperat. 

511  Substantive   clauses    of  Purpose    occur   after 
verbs  in  which  the   action  looks  toward  the 
future — that  is,  verbs  of  Will  or  Aim. 

These  include  especially : 

512  1.  Verbs   of   Asking,  Commanding,  Warning,   Persuading, 
Allowing : 


184  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

Ubil  orabant,  ut  sibi  auxilium  ferret,  the   Ubii  kept 

as  Icing  that  he  would  bring  them  help. 

mllites  cohortatus  est  ut  impetum  sustinerent,  he 

exhorted  his  soldiers  to  withstand  the  attack. 
concede  ut  abeas,  1  allow  you  to  go. 

513  2.  Yerbs  of  Resolving  and  Striving  : 

decrevit  senatus  ut  consules  viderent,  the  Senate  de- 
creed that  the  consuls  should  see  to  it. 
enitl  debes  ut  vincas,  you  must  strive  to  conquer. 
cur  a  ut  quam  primum  intellegam,  take  care  that  I 
learn  as  soon  as  possible. 

514  3.  Yerbs  of  Hindering ;  used  with  quominus  or  ne  : 

aetas    non    imp  edit    quominus    agrl    colendl   studia 

teneamus,  age  does  not  hinder  us  from  following  the  pur- 
suits of  agriculture. 

impedior  ne  plura  dicam,  I  am  prevented  from  say- 
ing more. 

515  4.  Yerbs  of  Wishing  : 

optavit  Phaethon  ut  in  currum  patris  tolleretur,  Phae- 
ton desired  to  be  borne  (aloft)  in  his  father's  chariot. 

516  5.  Yerbs  of  Fearing. 

Notice  that  with  these  verbs  ut  means  that  not  and  ne 
means  that : 

vereor  ut  veniat,  I  fear  that  he  will  not  come  =  I  am  fear- 
ful:  (0)  that  he  may  come.  [Here  the  coming  is  not  ex- 
pected.] 

vereor  ne  veniat,  I  fear  that  he  will  come  =  I  am  fearful : 
may  he  not  come.  [Here  the  coming  is  expected.] 

517  II.  Adverbial  Clauses  of  Purpose  supplement 
the  meaning  of  the  leading  verb,  and  merely 
state  the  purpose  of  the  action  : 

edo  ut  vivam,  I  eat  to  live  (that  I  may  live). 


THE  USES  OF  THE   VERB  185 

Here  ut  vivam  states  the  purpose  of  edo  and  modifies  it 
like  an  Adverb  of  Cause  (because  1  would  live}. 
veni  ut  viderem,  I  came  to  see. 

ut  ameris,  amabilis  esto,  that  you  may  he  loved, 
be  lovable. 

gallinae  pennis  fovent  pullos,  ne  frigore  laedantur, 
hens  shelter  (their)  chickens  with  (their)  wings,  lest  they  be 
hurt  by  the  cold. 

518  The  purpose  is  often  suggested  by  some  Demonstrative  ex- 
pression in  the  principal  clause ;  such  as  idcirco,  ideo,  prop- 
terea,  on  that  account,  therefore,  eo,  ea  mente,  eo  consilio, 

with  that  intent,  for  this  reason : 

litteras  ad  te  e  6  misl,  ut  rescrlberes,  /  sent  you  a  letter 
for  this  reason — that  you  might  answer  it. 

2.  CLAUSES  OF  RESULT 

519  Clauses   of  Result  are  introduced  by  ut,  (so) 
that,  or  by  ut  non,  (so)  that  not,  and  always 
take  the  Subjunctive : 

sol  efficit  ut  omnia  floreant,  the  sun  makes  all  things 
flourish  (literally,  so  that  all  things  flourish). 
mons  impendebat,  ut  perpauci  prohibere  possent,  a 

mountain  hung  over,  so  that  a  very  few  could  block  (the  way). 

520  Clauses   of   Result   are   either  Substantive    or 
Adverbial. 

521  I.  Substantive  Clauses  of  Result  fill  out  or  com- 
plete what  is  implied  in  the  leading  verb. 

Such  clauses  are  used  chiefly  as  Subject  or  Object,  and 
sometimes  as  an  Appositive. 
They  occur  after 

522  1.  Verbs  of  Accomplishing  : 

sol  efficit  ut  omnia  floreant,  the  sun  makes  all  things 
flourish. 


186  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

523  2.  Impersonal  Yerbs  of  Happening,  Following,  Eemaining : 

saepe  fit  ut  homines  fallantur,  it  often  happens  that 

men  are  mistaken. 

si  verum  non  est,  sequitur  ut  falsum  sit,  if  it  is  not 

*true,  it  foil ow  s  that  it  is  false. 

r e s t a t  ut  dicam,  it  remains  for  me  to  say. 

524  3.  Some  words  of  Law  and  Custom  : 

mos  Romanorum  erat  ut  binos  haberent  consules,  it 

was  a  custom  of  the  Romans  to  have  two  consuls  (at  a  time). 

525  4.  A  Comparative  with  quam  : 

vivebat  lautius  quam  ut  invidiam  effugeret,  he  lived 
too  lavishly  to  escape  envy. 

526  The  Eesult  is  often  suggested  by  a  neuter  demonstrative  in 
the  leading  clause  : 

i  d  facere  conantur,  ut  e  finibus  suis  exeant,  they  try  to 
accomplish  this,  (namely)  to  move  out  of  their  territory. 
soli  hoc  contingit  sapient!,  ut  nihil  invitus  faciat,  to  do 

nothing  against  one's  own  will, — t  his  belongs  to  the  wise  alone. 

527  II.  Adverbial  Clauses  of  Result  supplement  the 
meaning  of  the  leading  verb,  and  merely  state 
the  result  of  the  action. 

mons  impendebat,  ut  perpauci  prohibere  possent,  a 

mountain  hung  over,  so  that  a  very  few  could  block  the  way. 

528  The  Eesult  is  often  suggested  by  some  correlative  to  ut,  espe- 
cially by   talis,  tantus,  ejus  modi,  ita,  sic,  tantopere, 
adeo,  or  by  the  demonstratives  hie,  is,  Idem,  ille,  used  in 
the  sense  of  talis  or  tantus  : 

t  ant  6s  sibi  spiritus  sumpserat,  ut  ferendus  non  vide- 
retur,  he  had  put  on  such  airs,  that  he  seemed  unendurable. 
i  t  a  vixi,  ut  non  frustra  me  natum  existimem,  /  have  s  o 
lived  that  I  do  not  think  I  ivas  born  in  vain. 
ea  celeritate  ierunt,  ut  hostes  impetum  sustinere  non 
possent,  they  advanced  with   such   swiftness  that  the  foe 
could  not  withstand  the  attack. 


THE  USES  OP  THE  VERB  187 

3.  CLAUSES  OF  TIME 

529  Clauses  of  Time  are  Adverbial,  and  take  the 
Indicative    or   Subjunctive.      They  are   intro- 
duced as  follows : 

530  1.  By  postquam,  after,  ubi,  lit,  when,  cum  prl- 
mum,   ubi    primum,   simul,    simul    ac   (simul 
atque),  as  soon  as. 

Here  the  time  of  the  leading  verb  is  later  than  that  of  the 
subordinate  clause. 

531  These  clauses  regularly  refer  to  a  single  past  action,  and  take 
the  Perfect  Indicative : 

postquam  hostes  fugavit,  flumen  Axonam  exerci- 
tum  transduxit,  after  he  routed  the  foe,  lie  led  (his)  army 
across  the  river  Axona. 

qui  ut  peroravit,  surrexit  Clodius,  when  he  fin- 
ished speaking,  up  rose  Clodius. 

532  But  the  Pluperfect  Indicative  is  used — 

1.  To  express  past  time  with  greater  exactness. 

nono  anno  postquam  venerat,  in  the  ninth  year 
after  he  came. 

2.  To  express  repeated  action,  with  ubi,  ut,  simul  atque : 

ubi  nostros  egredientes  conspexerant,  adorieban- 
tur,  10 hen  (ever}  they  noticed  our  (soldiers)  disembark- 
ing, they  attacked  (them). 

533  2.  By  dum,  donee,  quoad,  while,  as  long  as. 

Here  the  time  of  the  leading  verb  is  the  same  as  that  of 
the  subordinate  clause. 

These  clauses  usually  take  the  Indicative,  but 
clauses  of  expected  action  take  the  Subjunctive 
and  are  translated  until : 


188  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

abi,  dum  est  facultas,  go !  while  you  have  a  chance. 
donee  eris  felix  multos  numerabis  amicos,  so  long 
as  you  are  lucky,  you  will  count  up  many  friends. 
exspectavit  dum  naves  convenirent,A^  waited  u n - 
til  the  ships  should  assemble. 

For  dum  with  Subjunctive  of  Proviso  see  565. 
quamdiu,  as  long  as,  always  takes  the  Indicative, 
quamdiu  potuit,  tacuit,  he  kept  still  as  long  as  he  could. 

534  3.  By  antequam,  priusquam,  before  (that),  ere. 

Here  the  time  of  the  leading  verb  is  earlier  than  that  of 
the  subordinate  clause. 

Each  may  be  written  as  two  words,  ante  .  .  .  quam, 
prius  .  .  .  quam. 

They  are  used  with  the  Indicative  to  express 
a  known  fact  or  with  the  Present  Subjunctive 
to  express  an  anticipated  fact : 

priusquam  lucet,  adsunt,  before  it  is  dawn,  they 
are  here. 

ante  videmus  fulgorem   quam  sonum   audiamus, 
we  see  the  flash  ere  we  hear  the  sound. 

[CLAUSES  WITH  cum] 

"  cum  temporal " 

535  4.  By  cum,  when,  whenever,  to   express  past, 
present,  or  future  time  with  a  corresponding 
tense  of  the  Indicative  : 

Romae  videor  esse,  cum  tuas  litteras  lego,  when  I 
am  reading  a  letter  of  yours,  I  seem  to  he  in  Rome. 

"cum  historical" 

536  In    expressing   past  time  the   Indicative  in  a 
historical  tense  (161)  states  the  particular  time 


THE  USES  OF  THE   VERB  189 

when  something  happened,  and  the  Subjunctive 
in  the  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  the  surroundings^ 
or  situation  in  which  it  happened : 

Gallo  narravl,  cum  proxime  Romae  fui,  quid  audis- 
sem  (189),  when  I  was  last  in  Rome,  I  told  Gallus  what  2 
had  heard. 
Zenonem,  cum  Athenis  essem,  audiebam  frequens, 

being  in  Athens,  1  regularly  used-to-hear  Zeno  (lecture). 

The  Subjunctive  is  the  usual  construction. 


537  In  sentences  of  sudden  or  unexpected  action  the  subordinate 
cum-clause  often  contains  the  leading  thought  and  the  prin- 
cipal clause  contains  the  dependent  thought.     The  principal 
clause  conies  first,   often  with  jam,   already,  vix,  aegre, 
hardly,  or  nondum,  not  yet.    The  cum-clause  is  put  last, 
often  with  repente  or  subito,  suddenly : 

jam  subibat  muros,  cum  repente  in  eum  erum- 
punt  Rdma.nl,  he  was  already  coming-up-to  the  walls, 
when  suddenly  the  Romans  dash  out  upon  him. 

Here  the  regular  arrangement  would  be,  cum  subibat, 
erumpunt  Rdmani,  when  he  was  coming,  the  Romans  dash  out. 
"  cum  inverse  "  takes  the  Indicative. 

"cum  coincident" 

538  When  both  clauses  must  have  the  same  Subject  and  Tense, 
cum  with  the  Indicative  is  often  used   to   show  that  the 
action  of  the  principal  and  subordinate  clauses  coincides : 

cum  tacent,  clamant,  when  they  hold  their  peace, 

they  cry  aloud. 

omnia  tribuisti,  c u m  ei  regium  nomen  concessisti, 

when  you  yielded  him  the  royal  title,  you  granted  every- 
thing. 

"  cum  coincident  "  takes  the  Indicative. 


190  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

"cum  relative" 

539  After  words  of  Time  cum  often  has  the  force  of  a  Relative 
Pronoun  (=  quo).     The  cum-clause  then  becomes  Attribu- 
tive (500) : 

clarus  fuit  ille  dies  cum  .  .  .  ,  glorious  was  that  day  when 
(=  in  which). 

fuit  tempus  cum  Germanos  Galll  virtute  sup  era- 
rent,  there  was  a  time  when  the  Gauls  surpassed  the 
Germans  in  valor. 

So  est  cum,  fuit  cum,  erit  cum,  there  is,  was,  ivill  ~be 
(a  time)  when. 

"  cum  relative  "  takes  the  Indicative  or,  oftener,  the  Sub- 
junctive. 

540  For  cum  in  clauses  of  Cause  and  Concession  see  542,  571. 

4.    CLAUSES  OF  CAUSE 

541  Clauses  of  Cause  are  Adverbial,  and  take  the 
Indicative    or   Subjunctive.     They   are   intro- 
duced as  follows : 

"  cum  causal " 

542  1.  By  cum,  since,  and  take  the  Subjunctive: 

quae  cum  ita  sint,  since  this  is  so  (304). 
Aedui,  cum  se  defendere  non  possent,  legates  ad 
Caesarem   mittunt,   since   the  Aedui   could  not  defend 
themselves,  they  sent  (447)  envoys  to  Caesar. 

543  2.  By  quando,  since,  and  take  the  Indicative  : 

quando  ad  majora  nati  sumus,  since  we  are  lorn 
for  greater  things. 

544  3.  By  quod,  (in)  that,  quia,  because,   quoniam, 
inasmuch  as,  since,  and  take  the  Indicative  or 
Subjunctive. 


THE   USES  OF  THE  VERB  191 

545  The  Indicative  is  used  when  the  reason  of  the  speaker  or 
writer  is  asserted  ;  the  Subjunctive  when  the  reason  of  some 
one  else  is  reported  : 

Indicative  with  quod,  quia,  quoniam 

tibi,  quod  abes,  gratulor,  /  congratulate  you  that  you 
are  absent. 

concede,  quia  necesse  est,  lyield,  because  I  must. 
solus  ero,  quoniam  non  licet  esse  tuum,  Pll  be  alone, 
since  I  may  not  be  thine. 

Subjunctive  with  quod,  quia,  quoniam 

546  Socrates  accusatus  est  quod  corrumperet  juventu- 
tem,  Socrates  was  accused  (on  the  ground]  that  he  was 
corrupting  the  youth.     [So  his  accusers  said.] 

mater  Irata  est,  quia  non  r  e  d  i  e  r  i  m ,  mother  was  angry, 
(saying  it  was)  because  1  did  not  come  back. 

Such  Subjunctives  are  really  in  Indirect  Discourse,  with 
the  verb  of  Saying  implied  (597). 

547  A  rejected  reason  is  introduced  by  non  quod,  non  quo,  non 
quia,  not  because,  or  by  non  quod  non,  non  quo  non,  non 
quin,  not  because  .  .  .  not,  and  usually  takes  the  Subjunctive : 

non  quod  do  leant,  not  because  they  are  suffering. 
[As  might  be  supposed.] 

non  quin  ab  eo  dissentiam,  not  that  I  do  not  dis- 
agree with  him. 

548  Bat  a,  fact  stated  as  the  rejected  reason  takes  the  Indicative  : 

non  quia  multis  debeo,  not  because  1  am  in  debt  to 
many.  [As  in  fact  I  am.] 

549  As  the  conjunction  quod  (in)  that,  (for  the  reason]  that,  is 
nothing  but  quod,  which,  that,  the  neuter  of  the  relative 
pronoun  used  with  a  causal  meaning,  it  is  easy  to  confuse 
the  two  uses.     But  notice  that 

The  Conjunctional  quod-clause   acts  as   an  Adverb    of 
cause  (Adverbial  Clause,  501). 


192  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

The  Relative  quod-clause  acts  as  a  Noun  (Substantive 
Clause,  498) : 

gaudeo  quod  te  interpellavl,  lam  glad  that  I  in- 
terrupted you.  Conjunctional  clause  (cause  of  gaudeo). 
quod  redilt  mirabile  videtur,  that  he  ret  timed 
seems  marvelous.  Eelative  clause  (acts  as  Subject  of  vide- 
tur). 

5.    CLAUSES  OF  CONDITION 

550  The  Conditional  Clause  is  introduced  by  si,  if, 
si  non,  si  minus,  if  not,   nisi,   unless,   or  sin, 
but  if.     It  is  Adverbial  (501). 

It  is  always  part  of  a  Conditional  Sentence : 
si  vis,  potes,  if  you  'will,  you  can. 

THE  CONDITIONAL  SENTENCE 

551  The  Conditional  Sentence  is  made  up  of 

1.  The  Condition,  or  subordinate  clause,  and 

2.  The  Conclusion,  or  principal  clause. 

Thus  in  si  vis,  potes,  the  Condition  is  si  vis,  if  you  will, 
and  the  Conclusion  is  potes,  you  can. 

The  Condition  is  also  called  the  Protasis,  and  the  Conclu- 
sion the  Apodosis. 

552  Conditional  Sentences  take  the  Indicative  or 
the  Subjunctive. 

Both  the  Condition  and  Conclusion  are  regularly  in  the 
same  Mood  ;  very  frequently  in  the  same  Tense. 

FIRST   KIND:  CONDITION  AS  FACT 

553  I.  The  Indicative  is  used  when  the  Condition 
is  stated  as  if  it  were  a  Fact.     Any  tense  may 
be  used : 


THE  USES  OF  THE  VERB  193 

si  a d e s t ,  bene  e  s  t ,  if  he  is  here,  it  is  well. 
si  nescis,  tibi  ignosco,  if  you  don't  know,  I  for- 
give you. 

hi,  si  quid  erat  durius  concurrebant,  if  there  ivas 
any  very-hard  (fighting],  these  men  rushed  in. 
si  fortuna  volet,  fies   consul,  if  fortune  (shall)  will 
it,  consul  you  will  be. 

si  peccavi,  Insciens  feci,  if  I  have  sinned,  I  did 
so  unknowingly). 

convincam,  si  negas,  /  will  prove  it,  if  you 
(now)  deny  it. 

si  quis  equitum  deciderat,  circumsistebant,  if 
(=  whenever)  any  horseman  fell,  they  stood  about  him  (lit- 
erally, were  standing). 

554  When  the  Conclusion  has  a  future  meaning  it  sometimes 
takes  the  Subjunctive  or  Imperative  instead  of  the  regular 
Indicative : 

quod  si  non  possumus  facere,  moriamur,  if  we  cannot 

do  it,  let  us  die. 

si  peccavi,  mihi  ignosce,  if  I  have  sinned,  forgive  me. 

SECOND  KIND:  CONDITION  AS  POSSIBLE 

555  II.  The  Present  and  Perfect  Subjunctive  are 
used   when   the    Condition   is    stated  as   Pos- 
sible. 

The  Present  and  Perfect  are  used  in  these  Conditions 
with  little  or  no  difference  of  meaning. 

si  a  d  s  i  t ,  bene  sit,  if  he  should  be  here,  it  would 

be  well. 

si  adfuerit,  bene  sit,  if  he  should  be  here,  it  would 

be  well. 

di  si  curent,  bene  bonis  sit,  should  the  gods  care, 

(all)  would  go  ivell  with  the  good. 


194  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

556  The  Conclusion  is  sometimes  in  the  Present  or  Future  In- 
dicative : 

memoria    minuitur,    nisi    earn  exerceas,   the  memory 
weakens,  unless  one  exercises  it  (494). 
si  cupias,  licebit,  should  you  (so)  desire,  it  will  ~be  al- 
lowed. 

THIRD   KIND:  CONDITION  AS  CONTRARY  TO  FACT 

557  III.  The  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive 
are  used  when  the  Condition  is  stated  as  Con- 
trary to  Fact. 

The  Imperfect  is  used  for  Present  Conditions  and  the 
Pluperfect  for  Past  Conditions  : 

si  adesset,  bene  esset,  if  he  were  here,  it  would 

~be  well. 

si   viveret,   verba  ejus  audlretis,   were  he  alive, 

you  would  hear  his  statement. 

Si  adfuisset,  bene  fuisset,  if  he  had  been  here, 

it  would  have  been  well. 

nisi  milites  essent  defessi,  hostium  copiae  dele- 

tae  essent,  if  the  soldiers  had  not  been  worn  out ,  the 

forces  of  the  enemy  would  have  been  destroyed. 

nisi  ante   Roma  profectus  esses,  nunc  earn  certe 

relinqueres,    if  you  had  not  left  Rome  before,  you 

would  certainly  leave  it  now. 


558  The  Imperfect  Subjunctive  is  sometimes  used  to    express 
continued  or  usual  past  action  : 

si  nihil  littens  adjuvarentur,  numquam  se  ad  earum 
studium  contulissent,  if  they  ivere  getting  no  help 
from  literature,  they  never  would  have  betaken  themselves  to 
its  study. 

quae  nisi  essent  in  senibus,  non  summum  consilium 
majores  nostrl  appellassent  senatum,  if  these  (traits) 
were  not  usual  in  older  men,  our  ancestors  would  not  have 
called  our  highest  council  the  Senate. 


THE  USES  OF  THE   VERB  195 

Opposing  and  Negative  Conditions 

559  nisi,  unless,  negatives  the  whole  clause : 

parva  sunt  forls  arma,  nisi  est  consilium  domi,  arms 
avail  little  abroad,  unless  there  is  wisdom  at  home. 

560  si  non,  if  not,  negatives  the  single  word  which 
follows  the  non : 

quod  si  non  possumus  facere,  moriamur,  if  we  can't 

do  it,  let  us  die  ! 

561  si  non  (or  si  minus)  introduces  an  opposing 
negative  Condition. 

1.  Repeating  a  preceding  positive  condition  in  negative 
form : 

si  feceris,  magnam  habebo  gratiam ;  si  non  feceris, 
Ignoscam,  if  you  do  it,  I  shall  be  very  grateful ;  if  you 
don't,  Pll  forgive  (you). 

2.  Modifying  a  Conclusion  containing  at,  tamen,  certe : 

cum  spe,  si  non  bona,  at  aliqua  tamen  vivo,  still,  I  am 
living  ;  if  not  with  good  hope,  yet  with  some. 

NOTE  :  si  minus  is  used  only  when  the  verb  in  the  re- 
peated condition  is  omitted  : 

educ  tecum  omnes  tuos  ;  si  minus,  quam  plurimos,  take 
with  you  all  your  (followers)  ;  if  not ,  as  many  as  possible. 

562  sin,  but  if,  introduces  an  opposing  positive  Con- 
dition : 

si  verum  est  .  .  .  ,  sin  falsum  .  .  .  ,  if  it  is  true  .  .  .  , 

but  if  false  .  .  . 

Conditional  Clauses  of  Wish  and  Proviso 

563  These  clauses  are  Adverbial.     They  are  introduced  by  dum, 
modo,  dummodo,  if  only,  provided  that,  and  take  the  Sub- 
junctive.    They  contain  a  Condition  stated  either  as  a  Wish 
or  as  a  Proviso.     The  negative  is  ne. 


196  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

564  Wish  (if  only): 

dum   ne   tibi  vide  or,  non  laboro,  if  only  I  do  not 

seem  so  to  you,  I  do  not  worry. 

multi  honesta  neglegunt,  dum  mo  do  potentiam  con- 

sequantur,   many  neglect  honor,   if  only    they   may 
gain  power. 

565  Proviso  (provided  that,  so)  : 

valetudo  modo  bona  sit,  provided  the  health  le  good. 
oderint,  dum  metuant,  let  them  hate,  so  they  fear. 

dum  ne,  if  only  .  .  .  not,  provided  .  .  .  not,  must  not  be 
confused  with  nedum,  much  less : 

nedum  tu  possis,  much  less  could  you. 

6.  CLAUSES  OF  COMPARISON 

566  Clauses  of  Comparison  are  Adverbial. 

567  I.  Conditional  Clauses  of  Comparison  are  intro- 
duced by  si  following  some  word  meaning  as 
or  than,  and  take  the  Subjunctive. 

These  words  (with  si  added)  are  ac  si,  ut  si,  quasi,  quam 
si,  velut  (si),  tamquam  (si) : 

velut   si  coram  adesset,   horrebant,   they  trembled, 

just  as  if  he  were  there  before  them. 

quid  his  testibus  utor,  quasi  res  dubia  sit,  why  do  1 

use  these  witnesses,  as  if  (indeed)  the  matter  were  obscure. 

568  II.  Correlative  Clauses  of  Comparison  are  in- 
troduced   by    ut,    slcut,   quemadmodum,    as, 
and  take  the  Indicative. 

A  correlative  demonstrative  word,  such  as  ita,  sic,  item, 
so,  likeivise,  often  stands  in  the  principal  clause  : 
perge  ut  instituisti,  go  on  as  you  have  started. 
ut  sementem  feceris,  ita  metes,  as  you  have  done 
your  sowing,  s  o  shall  you  reap. 

quemadmodum  vellent,  imperarent,  they  should  give 
orders,  as  they  pleased. 


THE  USES  OF  THE  VERB  197 

7.  CLAUSES  OF  CONCESSION 

569  Clauses  of  Concession  are  Adverbial. 

Notice  that  what  is  conceded  in  the  subordinate  clause  is 
opposed  in  the  principal  clause,  which  often  contains  tamen, 
certe,  or  sane. 

570  I.  With  quamquam,  although,  they  generally 
take  the  Indicative : 

quamquam  festinas,  non  est  mora  longa,  although 
you  are  in  haste,  the  delay  is  not  long. 

NOTE  :  quamquam  in  a  principal  clause  means  and  yet : 
quamquam  quid  loquor,  and  yet  why  do  I  speak  9 

571  II.  With  cum,  licet,  although,  ut,  (grant]  that, 
ne,  (grant]  that .  .  .  not,  they  take  the  Subjunc- 
tive: 

Atticus  honores  non  petiit,  cum  el  paterent,  Atticus 
did  not  seek  honors,  although  they  were  open  to  him. 
licet  omnes  fremant,  ego  non  tacebo,  though  all 
should  rave  (at  me),  I  shall  not  hoi d-my -peace. 
verum  ut  hoc  non  sit,  (grant)  that  this  is  not  true. 
ne    sit    summum    malum    dolor :    malum    certe    est, 
(grant)  that  pain  is  not  the  chief  evil:  an  evil  it  surely  is. 

572  III.  With  etsi,  tametsi,  etiamsi,  quamvls,  even 
if,  although,  they  take  the  Indicative  or  Sub- 
junctive like  Conditional  clauses  with  si : 

etsi  mons  Cevenna  altissima  nive  iter  impediebat, 
Caesar  tamen  profectus  est,  Caesar  started  nevertheless, 
although  the  Cevennes  mountains  were  blocking  (his) 
way  with  very  deep  snow. 

quamvls  sis  molestus,  numquam  te  esse  confitebor 
malum,  though  you  may  be  annoying,  I  will  never  admit 
that  you  are  bad. 
14 


198  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

NEGATIVE   CONJUNCTIONAL  CLAUSES  WITH    quin 

573  The  negative  conjunction  quin,  why  not,  that  not  (but,  nay\ 
is  made  of  the  relative  adverb  qul,  why,  and  ne,  not. 

574  I.  It  is  sometimes  used  in  principal  clauses  to  state  commands 
and  direct  questions : 

quin  uno  verbo  die,  nay,  tell  (me)  in  one  word. 
quin  conscendimus  equos,  why  not  mount  our  horses? 
II.  Otherwise  it  always  introduces  subordinate  clauses  which 
follow  principal  clauses  of  negative  meaning  : 

nemo  est  quin  audierit,  there  is  nobody  who  has 
not  heard. 

575  Subordinate  clauses  with  quin  always  take  the 
Subjunctive.     This  happens  especially  after  : 

576  1.  Words  of  Doubt  or  Omission.     (Like  an  Indirect  Ques- 
tion.) 

non  dubium  est  quin  uxorem  nolit  filius,  there  is 
no  doubt  that  (my]  son  does  not  want  a  wife. 
nihil  abestquin   sim   miserrimus,  nothing  is  lack- 
ing to  make  me  most  unhappy  (literally,  why  I  should 
not  be). 

577  2.  Verbs  of  Hindering.     (Purpose  or  Eesult.) 

retineri    non    potuerant    quin    tela    conjicerent, 

they  could  not  be  kept  from  hurling  their  pikes. 

578  3.  nullus,  nemo,  nihil,  quis.     (Result  or  Characteristic.) 

nemo  est  quin  audierit,  there  is  nobody  who  has 

not  heard. 

quis  est   quin   cernat,  ivho  is  there  that  does  not 


579  4.  facere  non  possum,  fieri  non  potest.    (Result.) 

facere   non  possum  quin  tibi   gratias   agam,  / 

can  not  help  thanking  you. 

fieri    non    potest   quin   tibi  gratias  agam,  it  is 

impossible  for  me  not  to  thank  you. 


THE  USES  OF  THE  VERB  199 

II.    RELATIVE  CLAUSES 

580  Relative    Clauses   are   introduced   by    relative' 
words,  especially  by  the  relative  pronoun  qui, 
who,  that  (147,  299).     The  negative  is  non. 

581  Other  relative  words  used  are — 

1.  The  Adjectives  quantus,  as  much,  qualis,  as,  quot, 
as  many  (152). 

2.  Adverbs  such  as  ubi,  when,  where,  unde,  whence,  quo, 
where,  whither,  quotiens,  as  often  as,  and  the  relative  ad- 
verbs so  often  used  as  conjunctions,  such  as  quando,  cum, 
when,  ut,  uti,  quam,  as. 

582  Compound  or  General  Relatives  are  those  formed  by  doub- 
ling, or  by  adding  -cumque,  -ever. 

Thus  quisquis,  quicumque,  whoever,  quantuscumque, 

however  much,  ubicumque,  wherever. 

583  Clauses  introduced  by  General  Eelatives  regularly  take  the 
Indicative : 

quidquid  id  est,  whatever  it  is. 

quacumque  iter  fecit,  wherever  he  made  his  way. 

584  Relative  Clauses  in  form,  and  often  in  use,  are  like  adjectives. 
But  they  are  more  often  used  with  the  force  of  an  adverb. 

585  I.  When  the  Relative  Clause  simply  describes, 
like  an  adjective  (500),  it  takes  the  Indicative: 

pons  qul  erat  ad  Genavam,  the  bridge  which  was 
near  Geneva. 

Here  qul  erat  ad  Genavam  describes  pons,  and  does 
nothing  more. 

586  II.  When  the   Relative   Clause,  like  the  Con- 
junctional (503),  expresses  Purpose,  Result,  Time, 


200  LATIN   GRAMMAR 

Cause,  Condition,  Comparison,  or  Concession, 
it  is  Adverbial  in  force. 

Notice  that  Eelative  Clauses  used  adverbially  and  Con- 
junctional Clauses  express  in  the  main  the  same  ideas,  with 
the  same  use  of  moods  and  tenses. 

1.  Purpose  (517) : 

equitatum  praemittit  qui  videant,  he  sends  forward 
cavalry  to  see  (who  may  see). 

2.  Characteristic  (Eesult,  527) : 

secutae  sunt  tempestates  quae  nostros  in  castris 
continerent,  there  came  storms  that  kept  our  (soldiers) 
in  camp. 

NOTE  :  It  is  doubtful  whether  there  are  any  relative  clauses 
of  pure  Result.  Most,  if  not  all,  so-called  relative  clauses 
of  Result  are  better  explained  as  clauses  of  Characteristic 

(587). 

3.  Time  (with  relative  adverb,  529) : 

quando  omnes  creati  sunt,  turn  ad  eos  deus  fatur, 

when  all  were  created,  then  to  them  spake  the  god. 

4.  Cause  (541) : 

6  fortunate  adulescens,  qui  tuae  virtutis  Homerum 
praeconem  i  n  v  e  n  e  r  i  s ,  happy  youth !  who  hast  found 
a  Homer  (as)  the  herald  of  thy  valor. 

5.  Condition  (550) : 

qui  videret,  urbem  captam  diceret,  whoever  saiv 
it,  would  say  the  city  (was)  taken.  Here  qui  =  si  quis,  if 
any  one,  whoever. 

6.  Comparison  (with  relative  adverb,  566) : 

majus  gaudium  fuit  quam  quod  universum  homines 
acciperent,  (their)  joy  was  greater  than  that  men  com- 
monly experience. 


THE  USES  OF  THE  VERB  201 

7.  Concession  (569) : 

absolvite  eum,  qui  se  fate at ur  pecunias  accepisse, 

although  he  confesses  that  he  has  accepted  money -,  acquit 
him. 

Clauses  of  Characteristic 

587  A  relative  clause  which  states  definitely  the 
natural  result  or  character  of  something  sug- 
gested indefinitely  in  the  principal  clause,  is 
called  a  Clause  of  Characteristic.     Such  clauses 
are  Attributive,  and  take  the  Subjunctive : 

non  is  sum  qui  terrear,  I'm  not  the  man  to  be  fright- 
ened (literally,  who  may  be  frightened). 
secutae  sunt  tempestates  quae  nostros  in  castris 
continerent,   there  came  storms   that  kept  our  (sol- 
diers) in  camp. 

588  Clauses  of  Characteristic  are  used  after 

1.  Principal  clauses  containing  is,  ejusmodi,  talis,  tan- 
tus,  tarn: 

ea  est  Romana  gens  quae  victa  quiescere  nesciat, 

the  Roman  race  is  one  that  knows  not  (how)  to  stay  quiet 
(when)  conquered. 

2.  General  expressions,  positive  or  negative,  containing 
est  qui,  sunt  qui: 

sunt  qui  putent,  there  are  (some)  who  think. 
quid  est  quod  veils,  what  is  it  that  you  wish ? 
erant  itinera  duo  quibus  itineribus  exire  possent, 
there  ivere  two  routes  by  which  they  could  depart. 
nemo  est  qui  nesciat,  there  is  nobody  who  does  not 
know. 

res  est  una  solaque  quae  possit  facere  et  servare 
beatum,  'tis  the  one  and  only  thing  that  can  make 
and  keep  (you)  happy. 


202  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

3.  dignus,  worthy,  indignus,  unworthy,  idoneus,  fit : 

res    digna    est    quam    conslderemus,    the    matter   is 

worth  our  consideration  (literally,  worthy,  which  we  may 

consider}. 

indignus  est  qui  imperet,  lie  is  umvorthy  to  rule. 

idoneus  qui  ad  bellum  mittatur,  fit  to  le  sent  to 

the  war. 

589  Relative  clauses  stating  a  restriction  are  characteristic  : 

quod  sciam,  so  far  as  I  know.  They  are  usually  Subjunc- 
tive. 

Catonis  orationes,  quas  quidem  legerim,  Calo's  ora- 
tions, so  far,  at  least,  as  I  have  read  them  (=  those  that 
I  have  read). 

III.  INTERROGATIVE  CLAUSES  (INDIRECT  QUESTIONS) 

590  Subordinate  interrogative  clauses,  or  Indirect 
Questions,   are   Substantive    clauses   (498)  used 
as  the  subject  or  object  of  verbs  of  asking,  say- 
ing, thinking,  or  of  interest  and  refert.     They 
are  introduced  by  the  same  interrogative  words 
that  are  used  in  Direct  Questions  (280,  281).    The 
verb  is  always  Subjunctive. 

The  Indirect  Question  is  one  form  of  Indirect  Discourse 

(597): 

quaero  quid  facias,  I  ask  what  you  are  doing. 
die  mihi  ubi  fueris,  tell  me  where  you  were. 
miror  cur  me  accuses,  I  wonder  why  you  accuse  me. 
multum  interest  quis  die  at,  who  says   (so)   is  quite 
important. 

591  Indirect  Questions   may  easily  be  confused  with   Relative 
Clauses  (580).     It  must  be  remembered  that  the  Indirect 
Question  differs  from  the  Relative  Clause  : 


THE  USES  OF  THE  VEKB  203 

1.  In  depending  on  a  special  kind  of  verb  (asking,  saying, 
thinking). 

2.  In  its  introducing  word  (an  Interrogative). 

die  mihi   quid  habeas,  tell  me  what  you  have,  contains 

an  Indirect  Question. 

d a  mihi   quod  habes,  give  me  what  you  have,  contains 

a  Relative  Clause. 

utile  est  scire  quid  futurum  sit,  it  is  useful  to  know 

what  will  happen,  contains  an  Indirect  Question. 

ef  fug  ere   nemo   potest   quod   futurum  est,  none  can 

esc ap e  what  will  happen,  contains  a  Relative  Clause. 

592  The  negative  particles  (240,  5)  num,  -ne,  are  used  in  Indi- 
rect Questions  in  the  sense  of  whether  or  if.    But  nonne  is 
used  only  after  quaero,  and  is  rare  : 

num  quid  vellet  rogavi,  I  asked  if  he  wanted  ant/thing. 
rogavit   essentne   fusl    hostes,    he   asked  whether  the 
enemy  were  routed. 

593  An  Indirect  Question  depending  on  a  verb  of  waiting  or 
trying  may  be  introduced  by  si,  if,  whether : 

exspectabam  si  quid  scriberes,  /  was  waiting  (to 
see)  if  you  would  write  anything. 

conantur  si  perrumpere   possent,  they  try  ivh  ether 
they  can  break  through. 

594  Indirect  Double  Questions  are  usually  introduced  by  the  same 
particles  that  are  used  in  Direct  Double  Questions  (281) : 
die  utrum  verum  an  falsum  sit "] 

die  verum  ne  an  falsum  sit  \          whether    it    is 

die  verum  an  falsum  sit  [  **%  wlietfl*r    lt    ™ 

die  verum  falsumne  sit  j      true  or  false' 

die  verum  sit  necne,  say  whether  it  is  true  or  not. 

595  The  second  part  of  an  Indirect  Double  Question  often  occurs 
alone  after  haud  scio  an,  nescio  an,  meaning  /  don't  know 
but,  I  almost  think,  I  fancy : 

haud  scio  an  falsum  sit,  I  almost  think  it  is  false. 


204  LATIN  GRAMMAR 


596  SYNOPSIS  OF  THE   MOODS 

A.  IN  PRINCIPAL  CLAUSES 

I.  INDICATIVE  :  action  of  verb  as  fact.          Negative  non. 

No  introducing  words. 
II.  SUBJUNCTIVE  :  action  of  verb  as  thought  of. 

1.  As  willed :  Volitive  Subjunctive.  Negative  ne. 

No  introducing  words. 

In  Commanding :  Jussive  Subjunctive. 

In  Conceding  :  Concessive  Subjunctive. 

2.  As  desired :  Optative  Subjunctive.         Negative  ne. 

utinam  often  used  as  introducing  word. 

3.  As  possible  :  Conditional  Subjunctive.    Negative  non. 

As  what  can  be  :  Potential  Subjunctive. 
No  introducing  words. 

As  possible  (=  Conclusion)  on  any  condition  (=  Condition) :  Con- 
ditional Subjunctive. 
Introducing  words  :  Conclusion,  none. 

[Condition,  si,  si  non,  nisi,  sin,  si  minus.] 

III.  IMPERATIVE  :  action  of  verb   as  command.     Negative 

ne  (see  496). 
No  introducing  words. 

B.  IN  SUBORDINATE  CLAUSES 

Indicative  only  in  clauses  of  fact ;  otherwise  the  Subjunctive. 
USES  OF  SUBORDINATE  CLAUSES. 

1.  As  Noun  :  Substantive  Clause. 

2.  As  Adjective  :  Attributive  Clause. 

3.  As  Adverb  :  Adverbial  Clause. 

FORMS  OF  SUBORDINATE  CLAUSES. 
I.  Introduced  by  a  Conjunction  :  Conjunctional  Clause. 

1.  Purpose :  Subjunctive  always.     Negative  ne,  quominus. 

Introducing  words  :  Uses  :  Substantive, 

positive,  ut  (uti),  quo.  Adverbial, 

negative,  ne,  quominus. 

2.  Result :  Subjunctive  always.  Negative  non. 

Introducing  words :  Uses  :  Substantive, 

positive,  ut.  Adverbial. 
negative,  ut  non. 


SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  MOODS  205 

3.  Time  :  Indicative  or  Subjunctive.  Negative  non. 

Introducing  words  :  Use:  Adverbial  only. 

With  Indicative  :  postquam,  ubi,  ut, 

cum  primum,  ubi  primum,  simul  ac. 
With  Indicative  or  Subjunctive:  cum, 

dum,  donee,  quoad,  antequam,  priusquam. 

4.  Cause  :  Indicative  or  Subjunctive.  Negative  non. 

Introducing  words :  Use :  Adverbial  only. 

With  Indicative :  quando. 
With  Subjunctive :  cum. 
With  either  :  quod,  quia,  quoniam. 

5.  Condition :  Indicative  or  Subjunctive.       Negative  non. 

Introducing  words :  si,  si  non,  Use  :  Adverbial  only. 

nisi,  sin,  si  minus. 

KINDS  OF  CONDITIONS 

(1)  As  a  fact : 

Condition  in  Indicative  (any  tense). 
Conclusion  in  Indicative  (any  tense).    See  554. 

(2)  As  possible: 

Condition  in  Subjunctive  (Present  or  Perfect). 
Conclusion  in  Subjunctive  (Present  or  Perfect). 

(3)  As  contrary  to  fact : 

Condition  in  Subjunctive  (Imperfect  or  Pluperfect). 
Conclusion  in  Subjunctive  (Imperfect  or  Pluperfect). 

6.  Comparison:  Indicative  or  Subjunctive.    Negative  non. 

Introducing  words  :  Use  :  Adverbial  only. 

With  Indicative  :  ut,  sicut,  quemadmodum. 
With  Subjunctive :  ac  si,  ut  si,  quasi, 
quam  si,  velut(si),  tamquam(si). 

7.  Concession :  Indicative  or  Subjunctive.      Negative  non 

or  ne. 

Introducing  words  :  Use  :  Adverbial  only. 

With  Indicative  :  quamquam.    Negative  non. 
With  Subjunctive  :  cum,  licet,  ut.    Negative  ne. 
With  either :  etsi,  tametsi,  etiamsi,  quamvis.    Negative  non. 

II.  Introduced  by  a  Relative  :  Relative  Clause. 

Moods :  Same  as  in  Conjunctional  Clauses  (Purpose,  Result,  etc.). 
Introducing  words :  qui,  quantus,  Uses:  Attributive, 

qualis,  quot,  ubi,  unde,  quo,  Adverbial, 

quotiens,  quando,   cum,  ut 
(uti),  quam. 

Also  quisquis,  quicumque,  ubicumque, 
and  other  General  Relatives. 

III.  Introduced  by  an  Interrogative  :  Indirect  Question. 

Introducing  words  :  Use  :  Substantive  only. 

In  Simple  Question:  interrogative    Mood:  Subjunctive  only. 

words  (280,  281)  num,  -ne,  (si). 
In  Double  Question :  utrum  ...  an  (see  594). 


206  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

INDIEECT  DISCOURSE 

597  A  sentence  quoted  in  its  exact  words  without 
any  change  is  in  Direct  Discourse  (oratio  recta): 

Solon  dicebat:  nemo  ante  obitum  est  beatus,  Solon 
used  to  say  " Nobody  is  happy  before  (his)  death" 

598  A  sentence  quoted  in  dependence  on  a  verb  of 
Saying  or  Thinking  is  in  Indirect  Discourse 
(oratio  obllqua) : 

Solon  dicebat  neminem  ante  obitum  esse  bea- 
tum,  Solon  used  to  say  that  nobody  was  happy  before 
(his)  death. 

The  sentence  in  Indirect  Discourse  is  the  Object  of  the 
verb  of  Saying  or  Thinking. 

The  rules  for  turning  Direct  into  Indirect  Dis- 
course are  as  follows : 

MOODS 
IN  PRINCIPAL  CLAUSES 

599  I.  Declarative  sentences  go  into  the  Infinitive, 
with  the  Subject  expressed  in  the  Accusative; 
Interrogative  and  Imperative  sentences  go  into 
the  Subjunctive. 

600  Declarative: 

mons   ab   hostibus  tenetur,  the  mountain  is  held  by  the 

enemy.     (Direct.) 

dicit  montem  ab  hostibus  tenerl,  he  says  that  the 

mountain  is  held  by  the  enemy.     (Indirect.) 

id  faciam,  /  shall  do  it.     (Direct.) 

Caesar  dixit  se  id  facturum  (esse),  Caesar  said  that 

he  would  do  it.     (Indirect.) 


THE  USES  OF  THE  VERB  207 

601  Interrogative: 

quid  tibi  vis  ?  cur  venis  ?  what  do  you  luant  f  why  do  you 

come  9     (Direct.) 

pauca  respondit:  quid  sibi  vellet,  cur  venlret,  he 

replied  briefly :  what  did  he  want?  why  did  he  come? 
(Indirect.) 

602  Imperative : 

legates  mittite,  send  envoys.     (Direct.) 

respondit    legates     mitt  ant,    he  replied    (that)    they 

should  send  envoys.     (Indirect.) 

603  As  Rhetorical  questions  (283)  are  really  Declarative,  they  go 
into  the  Infinitive  : 

plebs  fremit :  quid  se  vivere,  the  people  roar  out:  why 
are  they  alive  (at  all)  ? 

The  Direct  form  is  quid  vivimus,  why  are  we  alive  (at 
all)  ? — a  Ehetorical  question. 

604  Imperative  sentences  usually  go  into  the  Subjunctive  without 
ut  or  with  ne  : 

respondit    legates    mitt  ant,    he    replied    (that)    they 

should  send  envoys. 

obsecravit  ne  quid  gravius  in  fratrem  statueret,  he 

besought  him  not  to  do  anything  very  severe  to  his  brother. 

But  jubeo,  command,  and  veto,  forbid,  govern  the  In- 
finitive : 
naves  aedificari  jubet,  he  orders  ships  to  be  built. 

IN  SUBORDINATE   CLAUSES 

605  II.  Subordinate  clauses  become  or  remain  Sub- 
junctive : 

concede,  quia  necesse  est,  /  yield  because  it  is  necessary. 

(Direct.) 

dice  me  concedere,  quia  necesse  sit,  I  say  that  I  yield 

because  it  is  necessary.     (Indirect.) 

dicebam  me   concedere,  quia  necesse  esset,  /  ivas 

saying  that  1  yielded  because  it  was  necessary.    (Indirect.) 


208  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

But  notice : 

606  1.  Relative  clauses  equal  in  force  to  a  leading  clause  with  a 
demonstrative  (qui  =  et  is,  et  ille),  go  into  the  Infinitive 
with  the  Subject  in  the  Accusative : 

unumquemque  nostrum  censent  philosophi  mundl  esse 
partem,  ex  quo  (=  et  ex  eo)  illud  natura  conse- 

q  u  I ,  philosophers  think  that  each  one  of  us  is  a  part  of  the 
universe  ; — a  nd  from  this  it  naturally  follows. 

607  2.  Clauses  of  simple  fact  or  incidental  explanation  may  re- 
main in  the  Indicative : 

certior  factus  est  ex  ea  parte  vici,  q  u  a  m  Gallls  c  o  n  - 
cesserat,  omnes  discessisse,  he  was  informed  that  all 
had  departed  from  that  part  of  the  village  which  he  had  al- 
lotted to  the  Gauls. 

quis  neget  haec  omnia  quae  videmus  deorum  po- 
testate  administrari,  ivho  could  deny  that  all  these  (things) 
which  we  see  are  ruled  by  the  power  of  the  gods  ? 

TENSES 

608  III.  Tenses  of  the  Infinitive  follow  the  rules 
for  the  Infinitive  (632-636). 

Tenses  of  the  Subjunctive  follow  the  rule  for 
the  Sequence  of  Tenses  (462-471). 

But  after  a  historical   tense  the  Present  Subjunctive  is 
often  used  to  make  the  statement  more  vivid : 

Caesar  respondit,  si  obsides  dentur,  sese  pacem 
esse  facturum,  Caesar  replied  that,  if  hostages  should  be 
given  (instantly),  he  would  make  peace. 

PERSONS 

609  IV.  After  a  verb  of  Saying  or  Thinking  in  the 
Third  Person,  verbs  and  pronouns  in  the  First 
or  Second  Person  change  to  the  Third : 


THE   USES  OF  THE  VERB  209 

Ariovistus  Caesari  dlxit :         Ariovistus  said  to  Caesar  : 
(e  g  o)  in  Galliam  venl  /  came  Mo  Gaul 

s  e  in  Galliam  venisse  that  he  (Ariovistus) 

come  into  Gaul 

(t u)  in  Galliam  venisti  you  came  into  Gaul 

ilium  in  Galliam  venisse        that  he  ( Caesar)  had  come 

into  Gaul 

Notice  that  se,  the  Reflexive  Pronoun,  refers  to  the  Sub- 
ject of  dlxit  (421,  422). 

Notice  that  ilium  refers  to  some  other  person  than  the 
Subject  of  dlxit  (426,  137). 

610  Thus   the    First   Personal  ego,  nos,   become   se;    meus, 
noster,  become  suus  (140). 

The  Second  Personal  tu,  vos,  become  ille  or  is  (137). 

611  After  verbs  of  Saying  or  Thinking  in  the  First  Person,  the 
verbs  and  pronouns  do  not  change  their  Person : 

DIRECT  INDIRECT 

dm :  (ego)  in  Galliam  venl      m  e  in  Galliam  venisse 
dlxi :  (tu)  in  Galliam  venisti    t  e  in  Galliam  venisse 
dm:  (ille)  in  Galliam  venit     ilium  in  Galliam  venisse 

612  After  verbs  of  Saying  or  Thinking  in  the  Second  Person,  the 
First  Person  changes  to  Second,  the  Second  to  First,  and  the 
Third  remains  Third : 

DIRECT  INDIRECT 

dixisti :  (ego)  in  Galliam  venl  te  in  Galliam  venisse 
dixisti :  (tu)  in  Galliam  venisti  m  e  in  Galliam  venisse 
dixisti :  (ille)  in  Galliam  venit  i  1 1  u  m  in  Galliam  venisse 

CONDITIONAL    SENTENCES    IN    INDIRECT   DISCOURSE 

613  The  Condition  becomes  or  remains  Subjunctive, 
and  the  Conclusion  becomes  Infinitive : 

si  hoc  credo,  erro,  if  I  believe  this,  I  am  ivrong. 
dicit,  si  hoc  credat,  se  errare,  he  says  that,  if  he 
believes  this,  he  is  wrong. 


210  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

614  But  if  the  Conclusion  was  an  Interrogative  or  Imperative  sen- 
tence in  Direct  Discourse,  it  becomes  Subjunctive.     See  599. 

sin  perseveraret,  reminisceretur  pristmae  virtutis 
Helvetiorum,  but  if  he  persisted  (said  they),  he  should  re- 
member the  ancient  valor  of  the  Helvetians. 

In  Direct  Discourse:  sin  perseveras,  reminlscere,  if 

you  persist,  remember. 

I.  FIRST  KIND:    CONDITION  AS  FACT  (553) 

615  si  hoc  credo,  err  6,  if  I  believe  this,  I  am  wrong. 
dicit,  si  hoc  credat,  se  errare. 

dixit,  si  hoc  crederet,  se  errare. 

si  hoc  credam,  errabo,  if  I  (shall')  believe  this,  I 
shall  be  wrong. 

dicit,  si  hoc  credat, .se  erraturum  esse. 
dixit,  si  hoc  crederet,  se  erraturum  esse. 

si  hoc  credebam,  erravl,  if  I  believed  this,  I  was 

wrong . 

dicit,  si  hoc  crederet,  se  erravisse. 

dixit,  si  hoc  crederet,  se  erravisse. 

II.    SECOND   KIND:    CONDITION  AS  POSSIBLE  (555) 

616  The  Conclusion  becomes  Future  Infinitive : 

si  hoc  credam,  errem,  if  I  should  believe  this,  1 
should  be  wrong. 

dicit,  si  hoc  credat,  se  erraturum  esse. 
dixit,  si  hoc  crederet,  se  erraturum  esse. 

III.    THIRD  KIND:    CONDITION  CONTRARY  TO  FACT   (557) 

617  The  Condition  always  remains  unchanged  in  Tense  (as  well 
as  Mood). 

The  Conclusion  becomes  Infinitive  in  the  following  manner : 
1.  The  Imperfect  Subjunctive  becomes  the  Infinitive  in 

-urum  esse. 

This  is  the  Present  Infinitive  in  Periphrastic  form  (188). 


THE  USES  OF  THE   VERB  211 

2.  The  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  becomes  the  Infinitive  in 
-urum  fuisse. 

This  is  the  Perfect  Infinitive  in  Periphrastic  form  (188). 

si  hoc  crederem,   errarem,  if  I  believed  this,  I 

would  be  in  error. 

si    hoc    credidissem,   erravissem,  if  I  had  be- 

lieved this,  I  would  have  been  in  error. 

*7  tsi  hoc  crederet,  se  erraturum  esse. 
dixit,  ) 


icl*'  I  si  hoc  credidisset,  se  erraturum  fuisse. 
dixit,  j 

618  Notice  that  in  passing  into  Indirect  Discourse  the  Conditional 
sentences  lose  some  of  their  differences  of  form,  and  conse- 
quently are  at  times  less  exact  in  meaning  than  in  Direct  Dis- 
course.   A  striking  example  is  dixit,  si  hoc  crederet,  se 
erraturum  esse,  occurring  in  615,  616,  617. 

619  If  the  Conclusion  is  in  the  Passive  Voice  : 

1.  The   Imperfect  Subjunctive   becomes   futurum  esse 
(fore)  ut  with  the  Imperfect  Subjunctive. 

2.  The  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  becomes  futurum  fuisse 
ut  with  the  Imperfect  Subjunctive  : 

nisi  eo  ipso  tempore  pervenisset,  existimabant  plerique 
futurum  fuisse  ut  oppidum  amitteretur,  had  he 
not  arrived  at  that  very  time,  most  (persons)  thought  the  town 
would  have  been  lost. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  BY  ATTRACTION 

620  Clauses  which  depend  on  a  subordinate  Subjunctive  or  a  sub- 
ordinate Infinitive,  and  form  a  necessary  part  of  the  thought, 
are  attracted  into  the  Subjunctive  : 

mos  est  Syracusis  ut,  si  qua  de  re  ad  senatum  refer- 
atur,  dlcat  sententiam  qul  velit,  it  is  the  custom  at 
Syracuse  that  if  anything  is  brought  up  in  the  Senate, 
(anyone)  who  likes  may  speak  his  opinion. 

Here  si  ad  senatum  referatur  and  qul  velit  depend  on 


212  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

the  subordinate  Subjunctive  clause  ut  dicat  sententiam  and 
are  attracted  into  the  Subjunctive. 

mos  est  Athenis  laudari  in  contione  eos,  qui  sint  in 
proeliis  inter fectl,  it  is  the  custom  at  Athens  that  those 
who  have  fa  lien  in  battle  are  publicly  eulogized. 

Here  qui  sint  in  proeliis  interfectl  depends  on  the  sub- 
ordinate Infinitive  clause  laudari  in  contione  eos,  and  is 
attracted  into  the  Subjunctive. 


Verbal  Nouns  and  Adjectives  (157) 

621  The  Yerbal  Nouns  are  the  Infinitive,  Gerund,  and  Supine. 
The  Yerbal  Adjectives  are  the  Participle  and  Gerundive. 

THE  INFINITIVE 

622  The  Infinitive  acts  as  a  neuter  noun.     It  is 
chiefly  used  as  Subject  or  Object : 

errare  est  humanum,  to  err  is  human.     (Subject.) 
vereor  dicere,  I  am  afraid  to  say.    (Object.) 

623  The  Infinitive,  with  or  without  a  Subject  Ac- 
cusative, is  used  as  the  Subject  of  esse  and 
impersonal  verbs  : 

dulce  et  decorum  est  pro  patria  mori,  to  die  for  our 

country  is  sweet  and  noble. 

mlrum  est  te  nihil  s  crib  ere,  it  is  strange  that  you 

write  nothing. 

placuit  Caesari  Avaricum  incendi,   Caesar  thought 

Avaricum  should  be  burnt. 

624  The  Infinitive  is  also  used  as  a  Predicate  Noun  (290)  or  an 
Appositive  (291) : 

vivere  est   c 6  git are,  to  live  is  to  think.    (Predicate 
Noun.) 


THE  USES  OF  THE  VERB  213 

oraculum  erat  datum  victrlces   Athenas   fore,  the 

response   had   been  given  that  Athens  would   be  victor. 
(Appositive.) 

625  The  Infinitive,  with  or  without  a  Subject  Ac- 
cusative, is  used  as  the  Object : 

sclre  volebat,  he  wanted  to  know. 
dicit  montem  ab  hostibus  teneri,  he  says  the  moun- 
tain is  held  by  the  enemy. 

626  I.  It  is  used,  without  Subject  Accusative,  after 
verbs  which  need  another  verb  with  the  same 
subject  to  complete  their  action. 

Such  are  the  auxiliary  (or  "  helping  ")  verbs  cupio,  volo, 
nolo,  malo ;  possum  ;  debeo. 

Also  verbs  meaning 

begin,  continue,  cease,  as  incipio,  pergo,  desino. 
try,  dare,  strive,  hasten,  as  conor,  audeo,  studeo,  mature. 
purpose,  prepare,  decide,  as  cogito,  paro,  decerno. 
accustom,  teach,  learn,  know,  as  soleo,  doceo,  disco,  scio. 
neglect,  be  satisfied,  as  neglego,  satis  habeo. 
hesitate,  delay,  fear,  as  dubito,  cunctor,  vereor. 

sclre  volebat,  he  wanted  to  know. 

praeterita  mutare  non  possumus,  we  cannot  change 

the  past. 

proficisci  maturat,  he  hastens  to  set  forth. 

Rhenum  transire  decreverat,  he  had  decided  to  cross 

the  Rhine. 

627  Exceptions  occur,  but  are  not  frequent : 

cupio  me  esse  clementem,  / wish  to  be  considerate. 

628  II.  It  is  used  with   Subject  Accusative   after 
verbs  of  Saying  and  Thinking.     (This   is   In- 
direct Discourse.) 

15 


214  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

The  verbs  of  Saying  include  those  of  telling,  promising, 
informing,  accusing,  admitting,  and  their  opposites. 

The  verbs  of  Thinking  include  those  of  knowing,  perceiv- 
ing, remembering,  hoping,  suspecting,  pretending,  feeling,  and 
their  opposites : 

dicit  montem  ab  hostibus  teneri,  he  says  the  mountain 
is  held  by  the  enemy. 

promittit  se  venturum  esse,  he  promises  to  come. 
no  see  te  esse  hominem,  know  that  you  are  a  man. 
te  advenisse  g  a  u  d  e  5 ,  I  am  glad  you  have  arrived. 

629  Here  may  be  included 

jubeo,  command,  veto,  forbid,  sino,  patior,  allow,  cogo, 
compel,  prohibeo,  prevent,  cupio,  volo,  nolo,  malo, — when 
governing  an  Infinitive  having  a  different  Subject : 

German!  vinum   importari   non   sinunt,   the  Ger 

mans  do  not  allow  wine  to  be  i  mp  or  ted. 

Hadrianus  finem  imperil  esse  voluit  Euphratem, 

Hadrian  wished  the  Euphrates  to  be  the  boundary  of 
the  empire. 

630  Some  special  uses  are  as  follows : 

1.  To  express  the  End  or  Purpose  : 

quid  habes  dice  re,  what  have  you  to  say? 

cuncti  suaserunt  Italiam  pet  ere,  all  advised  to  seek 

Italy. 

2.  After  a  few  adjectives  : 

p a r a t u s  audire,  prepared  to  hear. 
cantari  dignus,  worthy  to  be  sung. 

3.  In  exclamations ;  sometimes  with  -ne  added  to  the  Sub- 
ject Accusative : 

te  sic  vexarl,  you  to  be  so  troubled! 
tene  hoc  die  ere,  you  to  say  this! 
mene  desistere,  /  to  stop! 


THE   USES  OP   THE   VERB  215 

631  The  Nominative  is  used  with  the  Infinitive 

1.  Always  as  Subject  of  the  Historical  Infinitive. 

This  is  the  Present  Infinitive  used  in  lively  narration  in- 
stead of  the  Indicative. 

Caesar  Aeduos  frumentum  flagitare,  Caesar  keeps 
asking  the  Aedui  for  the  grain. 

2.  Often  as  Predicate  ISToun  or  Adjective : 
consul  esse  potul,  / might  have  been  consul. 
omnes  student  fieri  b  e  a  1 1 ,  all  strive  to  become  h  app  y. 

3.  Often  in  Passive  sentences : 

dicitur  Homerus  c  a  e  c  us  fuisse,  Homer  is  said  to  have  been 
blind. 

TENSES  OF  THE  INFINITIVE 

632  The  Tenses  of  the  Infinitive  have  no  independent  time  of 
their  own,  but  a  time  which  depends  on  the  leading  verb. 

633  The  Present  Infinitive  expresses  the  same  time 
as  the  time  of  the  leading  verb  : 

dicit  se  scribere,  he  says  (now)  he  is  writing  (now). 
dicebat  se  scribere,  he  said  (then)  he  was  writing 
(then). 

634  The  Perfect  Infinitive  expresses  time  before  the 
time  of  the  leading  verb  : 

dicit    se    scripsisse,   he  says  (now)   he  has  written 
(before  now). 

dicebat  se  scrlpsisse,  he  said  (then)  he  had  written 
(before  then). 

635  The  Future  Infinitive  expresses  time  after  the 
time  of  the  leading  verb  : 

dicit   se    scripturum    (esse),   he  says   (now)    he    will 
iv rite  (later). 

dicebat  se  scripturum  (esse),  he  said  (then)  he  would 
write  (later). 


216  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

636  Verbs  which  lack  the  Participial  Stem  (171)  supply  their 
missing  Future  Infinitive  by  fore  ut  or  futurum  esse  ut 
with  the  Subjunctive : 

spero  fore  ut  contingat  id  nobis,  /  hope  (it  may 
happen  that)  this  good  luck  befalls  us. 

THE  GERUND  AND  GERUNDIVE 

637  The  Gerund  (157)  is  a  noun  with  the  force  of 
an  Active  verb  : 

mens  cogitando  alitur,  the  mind  is  nourished  ~by  think- 
ing. 

consilium  urbem  cap  i  end!,  apian  for  talcing  the  city 
(literally,  of  taking). 

Here  the  Gerund  capiendi  governs  urbem  as  Object. 
The  Gerund  is  not  used  in  the  Nominative  or  Vocative. 

638  The  Gerundive  (157)  is  an  adjective  with  the 
force  of  a  Passive  verb. 

It  acts  as  a  Future  Passive  Participle,  and,  with  sum, 
forms  the  Passive  of  the  Periphrastic  Conjugation  (188).  It 
expresses  what  must  ~be  done  or  ought  to  be  done : 
liber  legendus,  a  book  to  be  read  (—that  ought  to  be  read). 
consilium  urbis  capiendae,  a  plan  for  taking  the 
city  (literally,  of  the  city  to  be  taken). 

Here  the  Gerundive  capiendae  agrees  with  urbis. 

639  The  Gerund  is  used  as  follows : 

1.  Genitive  of  Definition  (348)  : 

ars  scribendi,  the  art  of  writing. 

modus  Vivendi,  manner  of  living. 

causa  colloquendi,  a  reason  for  conferring. 

Here  belongs  the  Genitive  after  causa  or  gratia,  for  the 
sake  of. 
hiemandi  causa,  for  the  sake  of  passing-the-winter. 


THE  USES  OF  THE  VERB  217 

Objective  with  Adjectives  (352) : 
cupidus  bellandi,  desirous  of  waging  war. 

2.  Dative  of  Purpose  (344) : 

aqua  utilis  est  bibendo,  water  is  useful  for  drinking. 

3.  Accusative,  only  after  prepositions  ad,  in,  inter,  ob : 
dant  se  ad  ludendum,  they  give  themselves  to  playing. 

4.  Ablative  (Means,  386) : 

mens  cogitando  alitur,  the  mind  is  nourished  by  thinking. 

Often  with  the  prepositions  ab,  de,  ex,  in : 
in  jubendo  et  vetando,  in  commanding  and  forbidding. 
ex  discendo  capiunt  voluptatem,  they  get  pleasure  out-of 


640  The  Gerundive  in  agreement  with  its  noun  is  to  be  preferred 
to  the  Gerund  governing  a  Direct  Object. 

Instead  of  the  Gerund :  Use  the  Gerundive : 

Gen.  urbem  capiendi,  urbis  capiendae,  of  talcing  the 

city. 

Dat.  urbem  capiendo,  urbi  capiendae,  for  taking  the 

city. 

Ace.  ad  urbem  capiendum,  ad  urbem  capiendam,  for  talc- 
ing the  city. 

Abl.  urbem  capiendo,          urbe  capienda,  by  talcing  the  city. 

641  But  when  the  Object  is  a  neuter  pronoun  or  adjective  used  as 
a  noun  the  Gerund  must  be  used  : 

aliquid  faciendl,  of  doing  something  (not  alicujus  faciendi). 
cupiditas  pliira  habendl,  greed  for  having  more  (not  plu- 
rium  habendorum). 

This  avoids  confusing  the  neuter  and  masculine  genders. 

642  The  Genitives  mel,  tul,  sul,  nostri,  vestri,  are  used  with 
Gerundives  without  regard  to  Gender : 

vestri  adhortandl  causa,  for  the  sake  of  encourag- 
ing you. 

mulier  sul  servandl  causa  aufugit,  the  woman  fled  for 
the  sake  of  saving  herself. 


218  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

643  The  Gerundive  is  used  as  follows : 

I.  Attributive  Adjective  (295,  Note) : 

leges  observandae,  laws  to-be-respected. 

II.  Predicate  Adjective  (295,  Note) : 

leges  sunt  observandae,  laws  are  to-be-respected. 

644  The  Predicate  use  is  common,  and  occurs 

1.  In  the  Passive  of  the  Periphrastic  Conjugation  (188) 
with  or  without  the  Dative  of  the  Agent  (339) : 

Caesar!  omnia  erant  agenda,  Caesar  had  to  do  every- 
thing (literally,  everything  had  to  be  done  by  Caesar). 

Intransitive  verbs  in  this  construction  are  always  imper- 
sonal : 

(mihi)  eundum  est,  (/)  must  go. 
paenitendum  est  malL  (one)  should  repent  of  evil. 
utendum  est  divitils,  non  abutendum,  (we)  should 
use  wealth,  not  abuse  it. 

2.  In  expressing  Purpose  after  verbs  of  Giving,  Sending, 
Caring,  Permitting,  Undertaking,  and  the  like  : 

pontem  faciendum  curat,  he  orders  a  bridge  made. 
urbem   diripiendam   dedit,  he  gave-over  the  city  to  be 
plundered. 

THE  PARTICIPLE 

645  Participles  are  adjectives  in  form  and  verbs  in 
force. 

They  occur  in  the  Present,  Future,  and  Perfect  Tenses  as 
follows : 

PRESENT  FUTURE  PERFECT 

Active  Voice,      amans,  loving     amaturus,  about  to  love 
Passive  Voice.  amatus,  loved 

Deponents.          utens,  using        usurus,  about  to  use  usus,  (having 

used,}  using 


THE  USES  OF  THE  VERB  219 

646  The  Tenses  of  the  Participle,  like  those  of  the 
Infinitive   (632),  have  no  independent  time  of 
their  own,  but  a  time  which  depends  on  the 
verb  they  modify  : 

sol  oriens  diem  conficit,  the  sun  (by)  rising  brings  on 
the  day. 

Plato  scribens  mortuus  est,  Plato  died  (while)  writ- 
ing. 

Homerus  fuit  ante  Romam  conditam,  Homer  lived  be- 
fore Rome  (was)  founded. 

647  The  Perfect  Participles  of  Deponents  and  Semi-Deponents 
often  have  the  force  of  Present  Participles : 

iisdem  ducibus  usus,  using  the  same  guides. 

648  The  Participle,  acting  as  a  Yerb,  governs  other  words  in  the 
same  manner  as  a  Finite  Verb : 

amans  gloriam,  loving  glory. 

miseris  succurrens,  relieving  the  wretched. 

649  The  Participle,  acting  as  an  Adjective,  is  Attributive  and 
Predicate. 

650  1.  Attributive: 

homo  adultus,  a  grown  man. 
mater  amata,  a  beloved  mother. 

Like  other  Adjectives,  it  is  also  used  as  a  Noun : 

amantes,  lovers.  natus,  son  (literally,  born). 

docens  discentem,  disc ens  docentem  adjuvat, 

a  teacher  helps  a  learner,  and  a  learner  a  teacher. 

651  2.  Predicate ;  often  with  the  force  of  a  subordinate  clause. 

Purpose : 

venerunt  legionem  oppugnaturl,  they  came    to   at- 
tack the  legion. 


220  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

Time: 
Plato  scrlbens  mortuus  est,  Plato  died  while  writ- 


Cause : 

moveor  tali  amico  orb at us,  /  am  distressed  because 
bereaved  of  such  a  friend. 

Condition : 

reluctante  natura,  inritus  labor  est,  if  nature  op- 
poses^ effort  is  useless. 

Concession : 

mortalis   natus    speras   immortalia,   though   mortal- 
born,  thou  hopest  for  the  immortal. 

652  For  the  Participle  in  the  Ablative  Absolute  see  397,  399. 

THE  SUPINE 

653  There  are  two  Supines,  one  in  -um  and  one  in  -iL     They 
are  verbal  nouns. 

654  The   Supine   in   -um   expresses   Purpose   after 
verbs  of  Motion : 

spectatum  veniunt,  they  come  to  see. 

legates  mittunt  rogatum  auxilium,  they  send  envoys 

to  as  Jo  help. 

655  The  Supine  in   -u   is  used  as  an   ablative  of 
Specification  after  adjectives  and  fas,  nefas, 
opus : 

mirabile  dictu,  wonderful  to  say. 

si  hoc  fas  est  dictu,  if  it  le  right  to  say  so. 


THE  USES  OF  ADVERBS  221 


VI.    THE   USES  OF  ADVERBS 

656  Adverbs  (240)  usually  modify  Verbs,  sometimes 
Adjectives  or  Adverbs,  and  rarely  Nouns : 

late  vagari,  to  roam  widely,  bis  morl,  to  die  twice. 
late  diffusa,  wide-spread.  bis  tlnctus,  twice  dyed. 
minus  late,  less  widely.  bis  tantum,  twice  as  far. 
late  rex,  a  ruler  fa  r  and  bis   consul,  twice   con- 
wide,  sul. 

657  The  Adverb  preferably  stands  just  before  the 
word  it  modifies : 

si  ita  putarem,  levius  dolerem,  if  I  thought  so, 1  should 

grieve  less. 

haud  ita  magnus,  not  so  great. 

658  This  order  may  be  altered,  especially  for  emphasis : 

quod,  etsl  saepe  dictum  est,  dicendum  est  tamen 
saepius,  this,  though  often  said,  must  still  be  said  yet 
oftener. 

Negative  Adverbs 

659  non  is  the  general  negative,  both  for  words 
and  sentences. 

ne  is  always  prohibitive,  and  is  especially  used 
in  negative  commands  or  wishes, 
haud  negatives  single  words,  usually  adjectives 
or  adverbs. 

quern  non  amat,  non  amat,  whom  she  loves  not,  she  loves 

not. 

haec  non  magna  res  est,  this  is  not  a  great  matter. 

ne  fle,  weep  not!  ne  eas,  don't  go! 

haud  malus,  not  lad.  haud  male,  not  badly. 


222  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

660  Two  negatives  usually  cancel  each  other  and  make  an  affir- 
mative : 

non  possum  n  6  n  confiteri,  /  must  confess. 
nemo  negat,  nobody  denies  =  everybody  admits. 

661  Notice  also  these  affirmatives : 

Indefinite — with  non  first : 

non  nemo  somebody 

non  nihil  something 

non  numquam    sometimes 

Universal — with  non  second  : 

nemo  non  everybody 

nihil  non  everything 

numquam  non    always 

662  But  when  such  negatives  as  non,  nemo,  nihil,  numquam, 
are  followed  by  ne  .  .  .  quidem,  non  .  .  .  non,  nee  .  .  .  nee, 
the  sentence  remains  negative : 

non  praetermittam  ne  illud  quidem,  not  even 
that  will  I  fail  to  mention. 

nemo  umquam  nee  poSta  nee  orator  fuit,  qui 
quemquam  meliorem  quam  se  putaret,  never  was  there 
orator  or  poet,  who  thought  any  one  better  than  himself. 

663  neque  (nee),  and  not,  with  an  affirmative  word  is  preferred 
to  et  with  a  negative : 

nee  quisquam,  and  nobody  nee  ullus,  and  no  (one) 

nee  quidquam,  and  nothing  nee  umquam,  and  never 

neque  autem  ego  sum  ita  demens,  and,  moreover,  I  am 
not  so 


APPENDIX 


ORDER     OF    WORDS 

I.    GEAMMATICAL    ORDER 

664  In  the  plain  or  grammatical  order  of  a  Latin 
sentence 

1.  The  Subject  comes  first  and  the  Predi- 
cate last : 

legio  |  ve"nit,  the  legion  \  arrived. 

2.  Modifiers  of  the  Subject  accompany  the 
Subject : 

decima  legio  |  venit,  the  tenth  legion  \  came. 
Cicero  consul  |  rem  publicam  servavit,    Cicero  the  con- 
sul |  saved  the  republic. 

3.  Modifiers   of  the   Predicate  precede  the 
Predicate : 

Cicero  |  rem  publicam  servavit,  Cicero  \  saved  the  republic. 

665  Modifiers  of  the  Predicate  come  in  the  following  order : 

Adverbial  constructions,  Indirect  Object,  Direct  Object, 
Adverbs. 

A  complete  example  is : 

decima  legio  ||  per  tribunes  militum  |  el  |  gratias  |  sta- 
tim  |  egit,  the  tenth  legion  \  at  once  returned  thanks  to  him 
through  their  military  tribunes. 


224  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

ORDER  OF  SINGLE  WORDS 
1.  Nouns 

666  Genitives  usually  follow  the  words  they  modify  : 

pater  patriae,  father  of  his  country. 
avidus  gloriae,  eager  for  glory. 
satis  pecuniae,  enough  money. 

Appositives  usually  follow : 

Herodotus  pater  historiae,  Herodotus,  the  father  of 
history. 

When  the  Appositive  is  a  place,  it  often  precedes : 
urbs  Roma,  mons  Jura,  flu  men  Rhenus. 

2.  Adjectives 

667  Adjectives  precede  or  follow. 

The  common  adjectives  more  frequently  precede : 
bonus  homo;  longa  dies. 
Adjectives  of  number  and  quantity  usually  precede : 

duo  mllia  passuum,  two  thousand  paces,  two  miles. 
mult  6s  annos,  (for)  many  years. 
ullo  modo,  in  any  way. 

Cardinals  usually  follow  :  hora  tertia,  the  third  hour. 

3.  Pronouns 

668  Demonstratives  precede,  Possessives  follow : 

ille  liber,  that  look  liber  meus,  my  look 

horum  omnium,  of  all  these    filius  suus,  (7m)  oivn  son 

Relatives  and  Interrogatives  stand  first  in  their  clauses : 

pons,  qui  erat  ad  Genavam,  the  bridge  which  was  near 

Geneva. 

quid  sui  consilii  sit,  ostendit,  he  shows  what  his  plan  is. 


ORDER  OF  WORDS  225 

4.  Adverbs 

669  Adverbs  regularly  precede : 

bene  est,  it  is  well.  fere  omnes,  almost  all. 

paulo  post,  a  little  after. 

5.  Prepositions 

670  The  Preposition  precedes  the  noun  or  phrase  it  governs : 
in  Italiam,  into  Italy. 

in  eorum  potestatem,  into  their  power. 

i  n  communem  omnium  salutem,  fo  r  the  common  safety 

of  all. 

Short  Erepositions  (mostly  of  one  syllable)  may  be  put 
between  the  noun  and  its  modifier : 

magna  cum  laude,  with  high  praise. 

quam  ob  rem,  wherefore. 

6.  Conjunctions 

671  Conjunctions  precede  the  expressions  to  which  they  belong. 

But  -que,  and,  quoque,  also,  quidem,  indeed,  demum,  at 
length,  follow:  ^  quoque,  you  too! 

autem,  enim,  igitur,  take  the  second  place  in  the  sen- 
tence, or,  when  est  or  sunt  are  added,  they  often  take  the 
third  place  : 

civitati  autem  imperium  provinciae  pollicetur,  to  the 

assembly,  h oiv ever,  he  promises  dominion  over  the  province. 
nihil  est  igitur,  ther efo r e  nothing  is. 

ORDER  OF  SUBORDINATE  CLAUSES 

672  A  subordinate  clause  is  used  like  a  Noun,  an 
Adjective,    or   an   Adverb.     See   498-501.     Ac- 
cordingly it  is  placed  in  the  order  which  cor- 
responds to  its  construction  : 

quod    redilt  |  mlrabile    videtur,    that    he    returned 
seems  marvelous. 

Substantive  Clause  (549) ;  Subject  of  videtur. 


226  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

Caesar  |  quid  sul  consilil  sit  |  ostendit,  Caesar  shows 
what  his  plan  is. 

Substantive  Clause  ;  Object  of  ostendit. 

fundusjqui  est  in  agro  Sabino|meus  est,thefarm, 
which  is  in  the  Sabine  region,  is  mine. 

Attributive  Clause ;  modifies  fundus. 
si  peccavi  |  ignosce,  if  I  have  done  wrong ,  forgive  me. 

Adverbial  Clause ;  modifies  ignosce. 

II.    EHETOEICAL  ORDER 

673  The  plain  or  grammatical  order  is  very  often 
changed,  especially  to  make  some  part  of  the 
sentence    emphatic.      This    changed   order   is 
called  the  Rhetorical  order. 

Examples  of  Changed  Order 

674  Subject  emphatic : 

erat  in  Gallia  ulteriore  u  n  a  1  e  g  i  6 ,  there  was  in  farther 

Gaul   JUST   ONE   LEGION. 

Object  emphatic : 

te  ut  ulla  res  frangat,  anything  break  YOU  down! 
Predicate  first : 

fuit  Ilium,  Troy  is  NO  MORE. 
jacta  est  alea,  the  die  is  CAS T. 

varia  sunt  hominum  judicia,  VARIOUS  are  the  judg- 
ments of  men. 

Appositive  first : 

duae  urbes  potentissimae,  Carthago  atque  Nu- 
mantia,  TWO  MOST  MIGHTY  CITIES,  Carthage  and 
Numantia. 

Genitive  first : 

quanto  latius  o  f f i  c  i  6  r  u  m  patet  quam  juris  regula, 

how  much  more  widely  extends  the  rule  OF  DUTY  than  (the 
rule]  OF  LAW. 


ORDER  OF   WORDS  227 

Demonstrative  last :  Plato  ille,  the  great  Plato. 
Adjective  emphatic : 

aliud  iter  habebant  nullum,  other  way  they  had  NONE. 
Adverbial  phrase  emphatic : 

intra  moenia  sunt  hostes,  WITHIN  THE  WALLS  are 
our  foes  ! 

Three  emphatic  words :  Object,  Adverb,  Genitive : 

Tram    bene  Ennius  initium  dixit  Insaniae,  it  was 

ANGER  finnius  so  WELL  named  the  'beginning  of  MAD- 
NESS, instead  of  the  plain  matter-of-fact 
Ennius  Tram  initium  Insaniae  bene  dixit,  Ennius  well 
named  anger  the  beginning  of  madness. 

675  Notice  the  following  special  ways  of  securing  emphasis : 

Anaphora  or  Kepetition  in  the  same  order : 

Scipio  Carthaginem  delevit,  Scipio  Numan- 
tiam    sustulit,    Scipio    civitatem    servavit, 

Scipio  destroyed  Carthage,  Scipio  razed  Numan- 
tia,  Scipio  saved  the  state. 

Chiasmus  ("  criss-cross  ")  or  Transposition : 

memini  praeteritorum,  praesentia  cerno,  / 

remember  the  past ;  the  present  I  behold. 

676  For  the  sake  of  Clearness  subordinate  expressions  are  very 
often  inserted  in  the  clauses  to  which  they  belong : 

brevissimus  (in  Britannia m)   trajectus,  the  shortest 
crossing  (into  Britain). 

677  The  order  of  words  in  the  following  fixed  expressions  is 
never  changed : 

populus  Romanus,  civis  Romanus,  etc.  terra  manque 

pontifex  maximus  doml  militiaeque 

tribunus  plebis,  tribunus  militum,  etc.  mea  sponte 

Jupiter  optimus  maximus  mihi  crede 


228  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

PROSODY 

678  Poetry  differs  from  Prose  in  having  a  regular 
swing,  or  Rhythm  (from  the  Greek  rhythmos, 
beat,  throb). 

679  In  Latin  this  swing  or  rhythm  comes  from  the 
regular  recurring  of  long  and  short  syllables, 
and  not  from  the  accent  of  the  separate  words 
as  in  English. 

Thus  in  the  English  lines 

Marching  along,  forty  score  strong, 
Gentlemen  all,  and  singing  this  song, 
the  word-accent  settles  the  rhythm. 

680  But  in  Latin  poetry  the  word-accent  is  dis- 
regarded, and  the  quantity  of  the  syllables,  as 
long  or  short,  settles  the  rhythm. 

Thus  in  the  Latin  hexameter  ("  six-foot ")  line, 


parturi  unt  mon  tes,  na  scetur  |  ridicu  lus  mus, 

the  separate  word-accents  are  as  follows  (38-40) : 

parturiunt  m6ntes,  nascltur  ridiculus  mus, 
But  the  line  is  not  to  be  read  by  word-accent.     It  is  to 
be  read  by  the  verse-accent  of  the  six  feet  which  compose  it. 
In  this  line  the  verse-accent  goes  with  the  first  long  syllable 
of  each  foot,  as  follows : 

parturi  unt  mon  tes,  na  scetur  |  ridicu  lus  mus. 

[Notice  that  final  syllables  are  made  long  by  position  be- 
fore two  consonants,  even  when  the  latter  consonant  is  in  the 
following  word.] 


PROSODY  229 

English  verse  is  thus  said  to  be  Accentual  and  Latin  verse 
Quantitative. 

681  The  Quantity  of  Syllables  and  their  combination  in  Yerse 
of  different  Metres  are  the  two  parts  of  Prosody. 

I.    QUANTITY  OF  SYLLABLES 

682  The  general  rules  for  the  quantity  of  syllables, 
including   words   of  one   syllable,    have   been 
given.     See  32-37. 

Natural  Quantity  of  Final  /Syllables 
I.    ENDING  IN  A  VOWEL 

683  Final  a,  e,  y,  are  short ;  final  i,  o,  u,  are  long : 

porta,  amate,  misy ;  bom,  bono,  cornu. 

EXCEPTIONS 

684  Final  a  :  Ablative  Singular  First  Declension :  porta. 

Imperative  First  Conjugation  :  ama. 
Indeclinable  words  as  interea,  triginta,  contra. 
But  ita,  quia. 

685  Final  e  :  Ablative  Singular  Fifth  Declension :  die. 

Imperative  Second  Conjugation  :  mone. 

But  sometimes  cave,  vale,  vide. 
Adverbs  from  Adjectives  of  Second  Declension : 
recte.    But  bene,  male. 

686  Final  i :    nisi,  quasi. 

Final  I:    mini,  tibl,  sibl,  ibi,  ubl. 

Notice  the  quantity  of  i  in  the  compounds 
ibidem,  ibique,  ubique, 
ubmam,  ubivis,  ubicumque,  utmam,  slcuti. 

687  Final  6 :  duo,  cito,  ego,  modo  and  its  compounds  (dummodo). 

Rarely   in  Yerbs  and  Third  Declension  Nouns: 

amo,  virgo. 
16 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


II.    ENDING  IN  A  CONSONANT 

688  Final  Syllables  ending  in  any  consonant  or  con- 
sonants, except  s,  are  short : 

amat,  amant,  amabit,  amantur,  amem. 

EXCEPTIONS 

689  The  adverbs  illlc,  illuc,  istic,  istuc. 

Compounds  of  par  :  dispar,  impar. 
lit,  petilt,  and  compounds. 

Final  Syllables  in  s 

690  Final  as,  es,  os,  are  long;  final  is,  us,  ys,  are  short: 

amas,  mones,  bonds;  cams,  bonus,  chlamys. 

EXCEPTIONS 

691  Final  es :  Nominative   of   Third   Declension    Nouns    with 

Genitive  in  -etis,  -itis,  -idis :  seges  (segetis), 
miles  (mllitis),  obses  (obsidis). 

But  abies,  aries,  paries. 

Compounds  of  es,  be :  abes,  ades,  potes. 

The  Preposition  penes. 

692  Final  6s :  compos. 

693  Final  Is :    Dative    and    Ablative    Plural :    pueris,    boms, 

vobls. 

Accusative  Plural :  partis,  omnls. 
Some  proper  nouns  increasing  in  the  Genitive: 

Quins  (Quirltis),  Samms  (Sammtis). 
Second  Person   Singular   of   Present   Indicative 

Active  in  Fourth  Conjugation  :  audls. 
The   verbal   forms  Is,  fis,  sis,  vis,  veils,  noils, 

malls,  and  their  compounds,  as  adsls,  quam- 

vls,  possls. 
The  noun  vis,  force. 


PROSODY  231 

694  Final  us  :  Fourth  Declension  forms,  except  Nominative  and 

Vocative  Singular :  fructus. 
Nominative    of   Third    Declension   Nouns   with 
Genitive  in    -utis,  -udis,   -uris:    virtus   (vir- 
tutis),  palus  (paludis),  tellus  (telluris). 

695  Greek  nouns  (63,  72,  91,  92)  usually  keep  their  quantities  un- 
changed in  Latin. 

Thus  Aenea,  po£ma,  Tempe,  Dido,  Aeneas,  Pallas, 
Anchises,  Paris,  Simois,  Delos,  heros,  aer. 

II.    VERSE  AND   METRE 

696  A  Verse,  or  line  of  poetry,  is  a  series  of  long 
and  short  syllables  arranged  in  a  fixed  order. 

697  The  unit  of  measure  is  the  Foot,  or  least  group 
of  syllables  arranged  under  one  verse-accent. 

A  foot  usually  has  two  or  three  syllables,  never  more  than 
four. 

698  The  feet  most  used  in  Latin  poetry  are  : 
Dactyl  ("  forefinger  "),  long  and  two  short 
Spondee,  two  long 
Trochee,  long  and  short 
Iambus,  short  and  long 

699  A   long    syllable   is   treated   as  equal  to  two 
short  (-  =  ~w).     Hence  the   Dactyl  (---),  for 
example,   is   equal   in   Quantity  to  the  Spon- 
dee (-  -). 

700  A  Foot  has  two  parts ;  the  Thesis,  or  syllable 
which   has    the    rhythmical    beat    called    the 
Ictus,  and  the  Arsis,  or  unaccented  part. 


232  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

Thesis  means  "  setting  down "  the  foot,  as  in  marching. 
Arsis  means  "  lifting "  or  "  raising."  The  Ictus  is  marked 
by  a  stroke,  as  follows : 

Dactyl  with  Ictus  on  Thesis,     •*-  «  « 
Spondee  with  Ictus  on  Thesis,  -*•  - 

701  Metre  means  measure.     The  metre  of  any  verse 
means   the   number   and  kind  of  feet   which, 
taken  in  their  proper  order,  measure  the  Verse. 
Thus  Dactylic  Hexameter  is  the  metre  consist- 
ing of  six  Dactyls   (or  their   equivalents)  ar- 
ranged in  a  certain  order  : 

arma  vi  rumque  ca|n6  Troljae  qui  |  primus  ab  |  oris. 

NOTE  :  The  long  and  short  marks  used  in  scanning  indi- 
cate the  long  and  short  syllables. 

702  A  verse  lacking  part  of  the  last  foot  is  Catalectic  ("  leaving  off  "). 
A  complete  verse  is  Acatalectic  ("  not  leaving  off  "). 

The  last  syllable  of  every  verse  may  be  either  long  or  short  (^). 


703  The  reading  of  a  Verse  according  to  its  Metre 
is   called   Scanning.     Care  must   be   taken  to 
read  the  words  unbroken,  while  observing  the 
quantities,  ictus  and  caesura.     The  following 
points  should  also  be  noticed  : 

704  The  Caestira  (||)  is  a  slight  pause  for  reading  which  divides 
the  verse.     It  always  occurs  within  a  Foot  and  at  the  end  of 
a  word  (713,  714).     The  pause  which  occurs  when  the  Foot 
and  word  end  together  is  called  Diaeresis  (#)  : 

arma  vi|rumque  ca|n6  ||  Trojae  qui     primus  ab    6ns. 

(Caesura.) 

Ite  do|mum  satu|rae  venit  |  Hesperus  #  Ite  calpellae. 

(Diaeresis.) 


PEOSODY  233 

A  Caesura  between  the  thesis  and  arsis  of  the  foot  is  called 
Masculine.     A  Caesura  in  the  arsis  of  the  foot  is  Feminine. 

705  Elision  ("crushing  out")    is  the  slurring  or  obscuring  of  a 
final  vowel,  diphthong,  or  syllable  ending  in  m  before  a  word 
beginning  with  a  vowel  or  h.     This  is  regular  in  Latin  poetry. 
In  scanning  it  is  desirable  to  give  a  faint  sound  to  the  elided 
syllable : 

monstr[um]    horrend[um]   In|f6rm[e]   m|gens,  cui  |  lu- 
men ad|emptum. 

In  Elision  est,  is,  loses  the  e  :  dictum  est  =  dictumst. 
Elision  at  the  end  of  a  line  is  called  Synapheia  ("  bind- 
ing"). 

706  In  some  instances  the   two  successive  separate  vowels  are 
sounded  without  Elision.     This  is  called  Hiatus.     It  is  usual 
only  before  or  after  an  Interjection  : 

6  et  |  de  Lati|a,  6  |  et  de  |  gente  Sa|bma. 

The  following  are  less  common : 

707  Synizesis  ("  sitting  together ")  or   Synaeresis  ("  taking   to- 
gether ")  is  the  blending  of  two  vowels  into  one  long  vowel : 

deinde     =  delnde  aurels   =  aurels 

de[h]inc  =  delnc  cui         =  cui 

708  Syncope  ("  cutting  out ")  is  the  dropping  of  a  short  vowel 
between  two  consonants  : 

saec[u]lum  =  saeclum         repos[i]tum  =  repostum 

709  Diastole  ("  drawing  out  ")  is  the  lengthening  of  a  short  syl- 
lable before  a  caesura : 

pect6rf|0M*  mhi|ans  spi|rantia  |  consulft  |  exta. 

710  Systole  ("  drawing  together ")  is  the  shortening  of  a  long 
syllable : 

6bstipu|I    stet£|runtque    co|m[ae]    et    vox  |  faucibus  | 
haesit. 


234  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

711  Tmesis  ("  cutting  ")  is  cutting  a  compound  word  in  two  : 

quo  nos  cunque  feret  fortuna. 

Dactylic  Hexameter 

712  Dactylic  Hexameter,  also  called  Heroic  Verse, 
is  composed  of  six  dactyls,  partly  replaced  by 
spondees  with  the  ictus  of  a  dactyl.    (±  ~  ~  =  ±  -.) 

The  sixth  or  last  foot  is  always  a  spondee  and  the  fifth 
foot  is  generally  a  dactyl.  The  first  four  feet  may  be  spon- 
dees or  dactyls : 

-±^5  I  -f-^7^  I  -*-C7^  I  -^C7^  I  -tww  I  -i-^ 

I  I  I  I  I 

fit  fiigi|dnt  aqui|las  ||  timijdlssima    tiirba  cd|ltimbae. 
arma  vi|rumque  ca  n6  ||  TroLJae  qui  |  primus  ab  |  6ris. 
ill[I]  In|t^r  se|s§  ||  magnt  vl  |  br^chia    t6llunt. 

A  spondee  may  occur  in  the  fifth  foot.  Such  a  verse  is 
called  Spondaic : 

cum  soci|is  na| toque  Pelnatibiis  |  et  malgnis  Dis. 

713  The  Caesura   most   commonly   occurs   in   the 
third  foot,  and  is  Masculine  (704) : 

irma  vi|rumque  ca|n6  ||  TroLJa^  qui  |  primus  ab  |  6rls. 
Sometimes  the  Feminine  caesura  (704)  is  found : 
Infan|ddm  relglna  ||  jujb§s  renolv^re  do|16rem. 

714  The  Caesura  in  the  fourth  foot  is  less  frequent.     When  it 
occurs,  there  is  usually  another  caesura  in  the  second  foot : 

Inde  to|ro  ||  pater  |  Aene|as  ||  sic  |  orsiis  ab  |  alto. 

715  The  Diaeresis  (also  called  the  Bucolic  Caesura)  is  sometimes 
found : 

Ite  do|mum  satii|rae  venit  |  Hesperus  #  ite  ca|pellae. 


PROSODY  235 

Dactylic  Pentameter 

716  The  Dactylic  Pentameter  consists  of  two  parts, 
each  composed  of  two  and  a  half  feet.     The 
spondee  may  replace  the   dactyl  in  the  first 
part,  but  not  in  the  second.     The  last  syllable 
of  the  first  part  always  ends  a  word  : 

-^C7T3   I   -!-^7^   |^||^-^v^|-^v^v^|^ 

N_X     V_^  j  -^f     N^          I!)  I  I 

717  Dactylic  Pentameter  is  used  only  in  combina- 
tion with  Dactylic  Hexameter  in  the  so-called 
Elegiac  Distich,  or  couplet.     Thus 

d6nec  e|rls  fe|llx,  ||  mul|t6s  nume|r^bis  a|mlcos ; 
tempora  |  si  fue|rtnt  ||  ndbila,  |  s61us  e|ris. 

The  following  English  elegiac  couplet  helps  one  to  re- 
member the  two  metres : 

fn  the  Hexameter  rises  the  fountain's  silvery  column, 
fn  the  Pentameter  dye  falling  in  melody  back. 

THE  ROMAN  CALENDAR 

718  The  twelve  months  are 

Januarius,  Februarius,  Martius,  Aprllis, 
Maius,  Jiinius,  Julius,  Augustus,  September, 
October,  November,  December. 

The  old  names  for  Julius  and  Augustus  were  Qum- 
tllis  and  Sextilis,  the  Fifth  and  Sixth  months,  counting 
from  March,  originally  the  first  month  of  the  Roman  year. 

The  names  of  months  are  Adjectives  agreeing  with  mensis, 
month,  understood. 

719  The   first  day    of  the  month   is   the   Calends 
(Kalendae),  the  fifth  the  Nones  (Nonae),  and 


236  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

the  thirteenth  the  Ides  (Idus).  But  in  March, 
May,  July,  October,  the  Nones  and  Ides  came 
two  days  later.  This  may  be  remembered  by 
the  following  table  : 


K. 

1 

N. 

5 

7] 

;MAKCH 
MAY 

I. 

13 

15) 

JULY 
OCTOBER 

720  The  days  were  counted  backward  from  these 
three  fixed  points. 

Thus  January  1st  is  "  on  the  January  Calends"  or  Kalen- 
dls  Januariis,  and  December  31st  is  "  on  the  day  before  the 
January  Calends"  or  pridie  Kalendas  Januarias.  De- 
cember 12th  is  "  on  the  day  before  the  December  Ides"  or 
pridie  Idus  Decembres.  Notice  that  in  dates  pridie  acts 
as  a  preposition  and  governs  the  Accusative.  But  see  348. 

721  "  Two  days  before "  is   ante   diem    tertium,  "  three  days 
before  "  is  ante  diem  quartum ;  and  so  on. 

This  counts  one  day  more  than  we  should  expect.  But 
the  Eomans  counted  in  the  day  of  the  Calends,  Nones,  or  Ides 
as  the  first  day : 

ante  diem  tertium  Kalendas  Januarias,  or  a.  d.  Ill 
Kal.  Jan.  =  December  30th. 

ante  diem  quartum  Kalendas  Junias,  or  a.  d.  IV  Kal. 
Jim.  =  May  28th. 

722  ante  diem  (tertium,  etc.)  is  indeclinable,  and  governs  the 
Accusative. 

It  is  sometimes  used  with  the  prepositions  ab,  ex,  in  : 

ex  a.  d.  Ill  Kal.,  Jan.  from  December  30th. 


THE  ROMAN  CALENDAR 


237 


723 


The  Julian  Calendar 


^•5 
?§ 

&a 
P| 

March,  May, 
July,  October. 
31  days. 

January, 
August, 
December. 
31  days. 

April,  June, 
September, 
November. 
30  days. 

February. 
28  (29)  days. 

i 

KALENDIS. 

KALENDIS. 

KALENDIS. 

KALENDIS. 

2 

VI.        Nonas. 

IV.        Nonas. 

IV.       Nonas. 

IV.          Nonas. 

3 

V. 

III. 

III. 

III. 

4 

IV. 

Pridie  Nonas. 

Pridie  Nonas. 

Pridie  Nonas. 

5 

III. 

NONIS. 

NONIS. 

NONIS. 

6 

Pridie  Nonas. 

viii.     Idas. 

viii.     Idas. 

viii.     Idas. 

7 

NONIS. 

VII. 

VII. 

VII. 

8 

viii.     Idas. 

VI. 

VI. 

VI. 

9 

VII. 

V. 

V. 

V. 

10 

VI. 

IV. 

IV. 

IV. 

11 

V. 

III. 

III. 

III. 

12 

IV. 

Pridie  Idas. 

Pridie  Idas. 

Pridie  Idus. 

13 

III. 

IDIBUS. 

IDIBUS. 

IDIBUS. 

14 

Pridie  Idas. 

XIX.   Kalendas. 

XVIILKalendas 

XVI.       Kalendas. 

15 

TDIBUS. 

XVIII.      " 

XVII. 

XV. 

16 

XVII.  Kalendas. 

XVII. 

XVI. 

XIV. 

17 

XVI. 

XVI. 

XV. 

XIII. 

18 

XV. 

XV. 

XIV. 

XII.            " 

19 

XIV. 

XIV. 

XIII. 

XI. 

20 

XIII. 

XIII. 

XII. 

X. 

21 

XII. 

XII. 

XI. 

IX. 

22 

XI. 

XI. 

X. 

VIII. 

23 

X. 

X. 

IX. 

VII. 

24 

IX. 

IX. 

VIII. 

VI. 

25 

VIII. 

VIII. 

VII. 

V.  (VI.)       " 

26 

VII. 

VII. 

VI. 

IV.  (V.)       » 

27 

VI. 

VI. 

V. 

III.  (IV.)     " 

28 

V. 

V. 

IV. 

Prid.Kal.(III.Kal.) 

29 

IV. 

IV. 

III. 

(Prld.  Kal.) 

30 

III. 

III. 

Pridie  Kalendas. 

(Bracketed    forms 

31 

Pridie  Kalendas. 

Pridie  Kalendas. 

for  leap-year.) 

238  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

724  The  old  Eepublican  Calendar,  replaced  in  45  B.C.  by  the 
Julian  Calendar,  was  based  on  a  year  of  only  355  days — 10 
days  less  than  the  actual  year.     To  make  up  this  loss  a  short 
month,  the  mensis  intercalaris,  had  been  inserted  every 
other  year.     The  number  of  days  in  each  of  the  regular 
twelve  months  was  as  follows :  March,  May,  July,  October, 
each  31  days  ;  February,  28  days  ;  the  other  months,  each  29 
days.     Dates  in  Caesar,  Cicero,  and  other  writers  before  the 
time  of  the  Julian  Calendar,  are  to  be  read  by  the  Repub- 
lican Calendar. 

725  The  Roman  day  was  the  time  from  sunrise  to  sunset,  the 
night  from  sunset  to  sunrise.     An  hour  was  the  twelfth  part 
of  this  day,  which  varied  in  length  with  the  seasons.     "  Are 
there  not  twelve  hours  in   the   day  ? "  was  true  of  every 
Roman  day,  whether  long  or  short.      With  sunrise  at  six 
o'clock,  the  approximate  time  of   the  Roman   hours  is  as 
follows : 

hora  prima,  the  first  hour  =  6  to  7  A.  M. 

hora  secunda,  the  second  hour  =  7  to  8  A.  M.,  and  so  on. 

hora  undecima,  the  eleventh  hour  =  4  to  5  p.  M. 

Sometimes  the  divisions  of  the  night  were  reckoned  by 
hours.  In  such  cases  some  word  for  night  is  usually  ex- 
pressed : 

post  primam  horam  noctis,  after  the  first  hour  of  the 

night  =  after  7  P.  M. 

decem  horis  nocturms,  in  ten  hours  of  the  night. 

726  The  night  was  divided  into  four  watches  of  three  hours  each. 
With  sunset  at  six  o'clock,  the  approximate  time   of   the 
Roman  watches  is : 

vigilia  prima,  6  to  9  p.  M. 
vigilia  secunda,  9  to  midnight, 
vigilia  tertia,  midnight  to  3  A.  M. 
vigilia  quarta,  3  to  6  A.  M. 


ABBREVIATIONS  239 

ROMAN  NAMES 

727  A  Roman  usually  had  three  names : 

1.  praenomen,  personal  or  "  given  "  name,  as  Gaius. 

2.  nomen,  name  of  gens  or  clan,  as  Julius. 

3.  cognomen,  name  of  familia  or  family,  as  Caesar. 

The   nomen  nearly  always  ends  in  -ius.     Every  prae- 
nomen may  be  abbreviated. 

728  COMMON  ABBREVIATIONS 

1.  Personal  Names 

A.  =  Aulus.  Mam.  =  Mamercus. 

App.  =  Appius.  N.  =  Numerius. 

C.  =  Gaius.  P.  =  Publius. 

Cn.  =  Gnaeus.  Q.  or  Qu.  =  Quintus. 

D.  =  Decimus.  S.  or  Sex.  =  Sextus. 
K.  =  Kaeso.  Ser.  =  Servius. 

L.  =  Lucius.  Sp.  =  Spurius. 

M.  =  Marcus.  T.  =  Titus. 

M'.  =  Manius.  Ti.  or  Tib.  =  Tiberius. 

2.  Official  and  Miscellaneous 

A.  U.  C.  =  anno  urbis  conditae.      P.  R.  =  populus  Romanus. 

=  ab  urbe  condita.  Pont.  Max.  =  pontifex  maximus. 

Aed.  =  aedilis.  Pr.  =  praetor. 

Cos.  =  consul.  Praef.  =  praefectus. 

Coss.  =  consules.  Proc.  =  proconsul. 

D.  =  divus.  Q.  B.  F.   F.  Q.  S.  =  quod  bonum 
Des.  =  designatus.  fellx  faustumque  sit. 

D.  M.  =  dis  manibus.  Quir.  =  Quirltes. 

F.  =  filius.  Resp.  =  res  publica. 

Id.  =  Idus.  S.  =  senatus. 

Imp.  =  imperator.  S.  C.  =  senatus  consultum. 

K.,  Kal.  =  Kalendae.  S.  D.  P.  =  salutem  dicit  plurimam. 

Leg.  =  legatus.  S.  P.  Q.  R.  =  senatus  populusque 
Non  =  Nonae.  Romanus. 

O.  M.  =  optimus  maximus.  Tr.  PI.  —  tribunus  plebis. 
P.  C.  =  patres  conscript!. 


240  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

THE   ENGLISH    PRONUNCIATION  OF   LATIN 

I.    LATIN  WORDS  USED  AS  ENGLISH 

729  The  multitude  of  English  words  derived  from  Latin  includes 
some  which  have  been  taken  over  without  change  of  form, 
though  often  with  change  of  meaning.     Such,  for  example, 
are  circus,  omnibus ',  item,  tandem,  extra.     They  have  be- 
come English  words  with  English  sounds.     Such  also  are  all 
personal,  geographical,  and  official  Latin  names  which  occur 
in  our  language  in  their  original  form,  as  Julius  Caesar, 
Cicero,  Juno,  Minerva  •  Sarmatia,  Scythia,  Verona  j  dic- 
tator, consul,  censor,  praetor. 

These  are  freely  used,  especially  in  poetry.     Thus   Mil- 
ton writes  : 

"  From  Gallia,  Gades,  and  the  British  west." 

"  Canst  thou  not  remember 
Quintius,  Fdbricius,  Curius,  Regulus  9  " 

730  Latin  words,  short  phrases,  learned  terms,  and  maxims  in 
familiar  use  are  almost  naturalized  as  part  of  our  language, 
and  are  therefore  properly  pronounced  as  English.     Exam- 
ples are  seriatim,  excelsior,  in  memoriam,  Vice  versa,  ex 
officio,  bona  fide,  habeas  corpus,  e  pluribus  unum,  nil 
desperandum. 

II.    THE  ENGLISH  METHOD 

731  According  to  the  English  method,  now  no  longer  in  general 
use,  all  Latin  words  are  sounded  as  English.     Thus  pater 
is  sounded  pdy-ter,  mihi  is  my-high,  otium  is  oh-she-um, 
grave  is  gravy.     It  is  difficult  to  state  this  method  in  simple 
form,  because  of  the  inconsistencies  which  are  to  be  found 
even  in  the  best  English  usage.     The  following  rules,  how- 
ever, embody  the  essentials : 


THE  ENGLISH   PRONUNCIATION  OF  LATIN  241 

I.  VOWELS 

732  An  accented  syllable  ending  in  a  vowel  always  preserves  the 
long  English  sound  of  the  vowel. 

The  vowels  in  the  accented  syllables  are  sounded  as  fol- 
lows : 

ma-re     de-us      vi-ta     to-tus      mu-sa      Ty-rus 

Md-ry      de-ist       w-tal     to-tal        mu-sic       ty-Ysmt 

733  An  unaccented  syllable  ending  in  a  vowel  has  a  less  distinct 
and  shorter  sound  : 

a-re-a       ma-re        du-bi-us       s6-lo        ti-su 

are#  Mary          dubious          so/0  you  sue 

But  final  i,  except  in  tibi,  sibi,  keeps  the  long  sound. 
Thus  t6ti  =  tow  tie. 

734  A  syllable  ending  in  a  consonant  preserves  the  short  English 
sound  of  the  vowel.     The  short  vowels  in  such  syllables  are 
sounded  as  follows  : 

hanc        tes-tis        fin-do          hoc        tus-sis        cygnus 
hank        tes-ty  win-dow       hock        tus-sle          s^-nal 

735  The  following  exceptions  occur  : 

a,  before  one  r,  as  in  art :  parte  =  party. 
qua,  before  dr,  rt,  as  in  quadrant,  quarter. 
Final  es  as  in  ease  :  rupes  =  rupees. 
Final  os  as  in  dose :  tardos  =  tar  dose. 
er,  ir,  yr,  ending  a  word  or  syllable,  as  in  her,  fir,  myrrh. 
Thus  fer,  fer-vens,  vir,  vir-tus,  myr-tus. 

736  II.   DIPHTHONGS 

ae  and  oe  =  ee  :  taeter  =  teeter,  foedus  =feed  us. 

au  =  aw  :  laus  =  laws. 

eu  =  ew:  heu  =  hew. 

ei  =  * :  hei  =  high. 

ui  =  ui  :  quin  as  in  quince. 

But  cui  and  huic  may  be  sounded  Tci  and  liilce. 


24:2  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

737  When  the  combinations  ai,  ei,  oi,  yi,  are  accented  and  also 
followed  by  a  vowel,  the  i  is  joined  in  sound  to  the  follow- 
ing vowel : 

Mai-a  =  Mdy-ya  Pompei-us  =  Pompe-yus 

Troi-a  =  Tro-ya  Harpyi-a     =  Ilarpy-ya 

738  u  before  a  vowel  is  often  sounded  as  w. 

This  is  always  the  case  after  q,  and  sometimes  after  g"  or  s  : 
suadeo  =  swdy-deo  qui     =  Jcwy 

queror  =  kwee-ror  quod  =  kwod 

III.   CONSONANTS 

739  Notice  especially  the  following  : 

c  before  e,  i,  y,  is  like  s  :  Cicero  =  Sisero. 
ch  is  always  like  k  :  charta  =  kdr-tah. 
ci,  when  unaccented  and  before  a  vowel  =  sh(e)  :  socius  = 

so-slie-us. 

g  before  e,  i,  y,  is  like  j  :  eget  =  ee-jet,  egit  =  ee-jit. 
s  is  usually  sharp,  as  in  this  :  dandos  —  ddndose. 

si,  when  unaccented  and  before  a  vowel  =  sh,  or  some- 
times zh. 
Thus  :  confessio,  as  in  confession  (sJi). 

confusio,  as  in  confusion  (zh). 

ti,  when  unaccented  and  before  a  vowel  =  sh  :  ratio  =  ratio. 
x  beginning  a  word  =  z  :  Xer-xes  —  Zur-xees. 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH  243 


FIGURES    OF    SPEECH 

740  Figures  are  variations  from  the  plain  form  of 
statement. 

Ellipsis  (leaving  out)  is  the  omission  of  one  or  more  words : 
ne  quid  nimis,  (do)  nothing  in  excess. 

Pleonasm  (excess)  is  the  use  of  more  words  than  are 
needed  : 

diem  dicunt,  quo  d  i  e  conveniant,  they  set  a  day  on  which 
(day)  to  assemble. 

Zeugma  (yoking)  is  the  joining  of  two  or  more  words  in 
dependence  on  a  word  which  strictly  governs  only  one  of 
them. 

pacem  an  bellum  g e r  e n s,  (making) peace  or  waging  war. 

Hendiadys  (one  ~by  two)  is  the  statement  of  one  idea  by 
means  of  two  words  joined  by  a  conjunction  : 

vi  e  t  a  r  m  I  s ,  by  force  of  arms. 

Prolepsis  (taking  before)  is  the  introduction  of  a  noun  or 
participle  before  the  construction  which  explains  it : 

rem  vides,  quo  mo  do  se  habeat,  you  see  how  the 

matter  stands. 

Hypallage  (interchange)  is  exchange  of  construction  in 
words  without  changing  the  sense  : 

fulva  leonis  Ira,  the  lion's  tawny  rage  =  the  taivny  lion's 
rage. 

Hysteron  Proteron  (last  first)  is  reversal  of  the  natural 
order  of  two  expressions  : 

moriamur  et  in  media  arma  ruamus,  let  us  rush 
into  the  midst  of  battle  and  die. 


24:4  LATIN  GRAMMAR 

Hyperbaton  (stepping  over)  is  transposition  : 


per  te  deos  or 6,  by  the  gods,  I  pray  you. 
"  With  a  violent  hyperbaton  to  transpose  the  text." — MILTON. 

Oxymoron  (sharp  nonsense}  is  seeming  contradiction  : 
absentes  adsunt,  (though)  absent^  they  are  here. 

Synecdoche  (give  and  take)  is  the  use  of  part  for  whole, 
whole  for  part,  material  for  thing  made,  and  so  on  : 

Thus  :  tectum  for  domus  miles  for  milites 

elephantus  for  ebur        ferrum  for  gladius 

Hyperbole  (overshooting)  is  exaggeration  : 

nive  candidior,  whiter  than  snoiv. 

Litotes  (Lessening)  is  understatement.     It  is  common  with 
negatives : 

haud  malus,  not  bad  =  good. 

A  Simile  (likeness)  is  a  direct  statement  that  one  thing  is 
like  another : 
.  6s  deo  si  mil  is,  (he  was)  like  a  god  in  countenance. 

A  Metaphor  (transfer)  is  a  compressed  Simile  : 

Fabius  scutum  Romanorum  fuit,  Marcellus  gla- 
dius,  Fabius  was  the  shield  of  Rome,  Marcellus  her 
sword. 

Metonomy  (change  of  name)  is  the  use  of  a  word  to  rep- 
resent another  of  like  meaning  : 

Mars  =  bellum,  argentum  =  pecunia,  Volcanus  =  ignis. 

For  Anaphora  and  Chiasmus  see  675. 
For  Figures  of  Prosody  see  705-711. 


741 


INDEX  OF  LATIN  WOEDS 

The  numbers  refer  to  sections 


a,  ab,  abs,  34,  243,  244, 
319,  337,  378,  379, 
639.4. 

ab-,  377. 

abdo,  211.1. 

abiciO,  213.3. 

absque,  243. 

absterged,  205. 

ac,  248. 
ac  si,  567. 
accedit,  233.3. 
accendo,  211.3. 
accidit,  233.3. 
accipio,  213.2. 
Seer,  114,  122. 
acquii'5,  2O9. 
acriter,  235.2,  238.2. 
act  urn  est,  233.3. 
acuo,  193,  213.1. 
acus,  94,  96. 

ad,  34,  242,  311,   335.1, 
332,  639.3. 

adeo,  528. 
-ades,  264.4. 
adipiscor,  215. 
advenio,  219.2. 
adversum,  243. 
adversus,  242. 
aedes,  84.1,  1O4. 
aegre,  537. 
Aeneas,  36.1,  63. 
aequor,  79,  88.1. 
aer,  36.1. 
aes,  88.2. 
aetas,  77. 
-aeus,  267.7. 
aft'ero,  226. 
ager,  66. 
agiiosco,  214.1. 
ago,  195,  211.2. 

17 


ajo,  232. 

alacer,  128. 

alacrior,  128. 

alicubi,  240.3. 

alii,  438. 

aliqua,  150. 

aliquf,  149. 

aliquid,  316. 

aliquis,  149,  431. 

-alls,  267.2. 

alius,     113,     151,    425.2, 

436,  437. 
alms,  113. 
allicio,  183.2. 
alo,  310. 
Alpes,  1O2.2. 
alte,  238.1. 
alter,    112,    151,    425.2, 

436,  437. 
alterius,  112. 
altus,  120. 
alvus,  68. 

amandus,  -a,  -uiii,  167.3. 
a  in  and  us  sum,  188. 
amans,  116,  121,  167.3. 
amanter,  235.2. 
a  ma  riii  i,  189. 
amarunt,  189. 
amaturus,  -a,  -uiu,  167.3, 

191. 

amaturus  sum,  188. 
amatus,    -a,  -urn,    167.3, 

191. 

amassem,  189. 
a  i  lias  IT,  189. 
ambi-,  246. 
amblre,  246. 
a  m  bo,  439. 
am5,  171,  174,  175,  193, 

199. 


amphorum,  62. 
amplector,  215. 
amplius,  382. 
an,  34,  24O.5,  595. 
Anchlses,  63. 
Androgeos,  72. 
ango,  212. 
angustiae,  102.3. 
animal,  83. 
anne,  24O.5. 
anndn,  24O.5. 
ante,  242,  311,  333. 
antequam,  256,  534. 
a uti quit  us,  237.3. 
anus,  94. 
-anus,        267.2,        267.5, 

267.7. 
apage,  262. 
aperio,  217. 
apud,  242. 
arbor,  81,  88.1. 
arceo,  2O4.1. 
arcesso,  209. 
arcus,  96. 
ardeo,  2O5. 
Argis,  69. 
arguo,  213.1. 
aries,  89.1. 
-aris,  267.2. 
-arium,  264.2. 
-arius,  267.2. 
anna,  102.3. 
ars,  84.2. 
artiis  (pi.),  96. 
arx,  84.2. 
as,  89.1. 
-as,  267.7. 
ascendo,  211.3. 
asper,  111. 
aspicio,  213.2. 

345 


246 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


assentior,  22O. 

careS,  204.1. 

assuefacio,  213.2. 

card,  86,  88.1. 

at,  34,  250. 

carpS,  2O8.1. 

Athenae,  1O2.2. 

castra,  1O4. 

Atbenls,  61. 

causa,  349,  639.1. 

Atlas,  92. 

cave,  496.3,  5O4.2. 

atque,  248. 

caveS,  206.2. 

atqul,  25O. 

-ce,  34. 

au-,  246. 

cedo,  208.2. 

audeS.  187,  2O7,  626. 

celer,  114. 

audio,     171,     180,     181, 

censeS,  2O4.2. 

193,  216. 

centum,  131,  132. 

audisse,  189. 

cernS,  2O9. 

a  lulls  1  1,  189. 

certe,  236.2,  282.1,  569. 

aufero,  226. 

certS,  236.2. 

aufugere,  246. 

ceteri,  436,  438. 

augeS,  2O5. 

ceterum,  250. 

aulai,  62. 

cieo,  203. 

aut,  249. 

cingS,  208.1. 

aut  .  .  .  aut,  249. 

circa,  242. 

autem,  25O. 

circiter,  242. 

auxilia,  1O4. 

circum,  242,  311. 

-ax,  269.4. 

circuinsistS,  211.1. 

axis,  89.2. 

cis,  34,  242. 

citerior,  126.1. 

belli,  403. 

citimus,  126.1. 

bellum,  65. 

citra,  242. 

bene,  239. 

clades,  84.1. 

benevolus,  124. 

clam,  237.1,  270. 

-bilis,  269.3. 

clamor,  81. 

bim,  130,  132. 

clandestinus,  270. 

bis,  34,  132. 

claudS,  2O8.2. 

bonus,  108,  125. 

claudS,  212. 

bos,  85. 

clavis,  82. 

-bulum,  266.4. 

cliens,  84.3. 

-bundus,  269.1. 

clipeus,  -um,  105.1. 

coem5,  211.2. 

cad5,  211.1. 

coepT,  230. 

caedes,  84.1. 

coerced,  2O4.1. 

caed5,  211.1. 

cogito,  626. 

caelicolum,  62. 

cogn5sco,  214.1. 

caelum,  -T,  1O5.3. 

cogo,  33.1,  211.2,  629. 

calcar,  83. 

coliors,  84.3. 

calefaci5,  213.2. 

colligo,  211.2. 

calix,  89.4. 

collis,  89.2. 

calx,  84.2. 

colo,  210. 

canis,  82. 

color,  81. 

cano,  211.1. 

colus,  68,  94. 

capiS,     182,     183,     184, 

commimscor,  215. 

213.2. 

comperio,  219.1. 

carbasus,  68. 

compleo,  2O3. 

cardo,  89.6. 

con,  311,  332. 

concutio,  213.2. 

confers,  226. 

conflteor,  207. 

conor,  626. 

consero,  210. 

consists,  211.1. 

conspiciS,  213.2. 

coiistituo,  213.1. 

consuesco,  214.1. 

consul,  79. 

consulo,  21O. 

contra,  242. 

cSpiae,  1O4. 

coquo,  2O8.1. 

cor,  34,  88.1. 

cSram,  243. 

cornu,  93. 

corpus,  81. 

eras,  27O. 

crastiims,  270. 

credS,  211.1. 

crescS,  214.1. 

-crum,  266.4. 

crus,  89.3. 

cubile,  83. 

cucurri,  195. 

-culum,  266.4. 

-culus  (-a,  -um),  264.1. 

cum    (conj.),    24O.3,    256, 

257,  258,  535-540,  542, 

571,  581.2. 
cum    (prep.),     343,     244, 

390,  391,  392. 
cum  prim u in,  53O. 
-cumque,  582. 
cum  .  .  .  turn,  248. 
cunctor,  626. 
-cundus,  269.1. 
cupio,  182.1,  213.B,  626, 

629. 

curritur,  233.3. 
curro,  195,  211.1. 

da,  dans,  das,  201. 

dat,  34. 

de,  243,  319,  337,  639.4. 

dea,  62. 

debeo,  2O4.1,  626. 

decernS,  2O9,  626. 

decet,  233.2. 

dedecet,  233.2. 

d^decus,  274.2. 


INDEX  OF  LATIN  WORDS 


247 


defendo,  211.3. 

dum,  34,  256,  359,  447.1, 

euge,  362. 

deficio,  197.3. 

533,  563. 

euoe,  363. 

deleo,  193,  2O3. 

dummodo,  259,  563. 

-eus,  367.1. 

delesti,  189. 

dum  ne,  565. 

exerceo,  204.1. 

deligd,  311.3. 

duo,  130,  131. 

experior,  22O. 

Delos,  73. 

dux,  78. 

exterl,  126.2. 

demens,  375.3. 

duxi,  194. 

exterior,  126.2. 

demo,  211.3. 

extimus,  126.2. 

dens,  84.3,  89.5. 

e,  ex,  243,  244,  337,  378, 

extra,  242. 

desero,  31O. 

639.4. 

extremus,  126.2,  416. 

desino,  209,  626. 

ecce,  262. 

deterior,  136.1. 

ecquis,  149. 

fac,  34,  190,  496.3,  5O4.2. 

deterrimus,  136.1. 

edi,  195. 

facere  n5n  possum,  579. 

deus,  71. 

edo,  195,  211.2,  221,  223. 

facio,  182.1,  197.3,  213.2. 

dexter,  111. 

effero,  226. 

facile,  238.3. 

di-,  346. 

effugio,  213.2. 

facilis,  123. 

die,  19O. 

egenus,  124. 

fallo,  211.1. 

died,  3O8.1. 

ege5,  3O4.1. 

falsissimus,  137. 

Dido,  93. 

egi,  195. 

falsus,  127. 

dies,  97,  98. 

ego,  137,  153,  61C. 

fames,  1O6.4. 

differo,  336. 

eheu,  363. 

families,  62. 

difficilis,  133. 

eho,  363. 

fas,  10O,  655. 

dignus,  396,  588.3. 

-eis,  364.4. 

fascis,  89.2. 

diligo,  311.3. 

ejus  modi,  538,  588. 

fateor,  2O7. 

dimico,  30O. 

-ellus  (-a,  -um),  364.1. 

faveo,  206.2. 

dirimo,  311.3. 

emineo,  2O4.1. 

fel,  34. 

diripio,  313.3. 

emo,  197.1,  211.2. 

feliciter,  235.2,  238.1. 

diruo,  313.1. 

en,  262. 

felix,  116,  120. 

dis-,  346,  377. 

enim,  252. 

fer,  34,  19O. 

disc5,  314.1,  636. 

ensis,  89.2. 

fero,  221,  224,  225,  236. 

dissimilis,  133. 

-ensis,  267.2,  267.7. 

ferveo,  306.3. 

distinere,  346. 

eo,  221,  229. 

fides,  97. 

diu,  339,  447.3. 

eo  (abl.),  518. 

fidissimus,  137. 

diutissime,  339. 

epitome,  63. 

fldo,  187. 

<liu  tins,  339. 

epulum,  -ae,  105.3. 

ffdus,  137. 

dives,  117. 

erga,  242. 

fieri  non  potest,  579. 

divid5,  208.3. 

ergo,  251. 

figo,  308.3. 

divitiae,  1O3.3. 

eripio,  197.4. 

fill,  70. 

do,  301.1. 

-ernus,  27O. 

filia,  63. 

-do,  211.1. 

es,  34,  173. 

findo,  311.1. 

doceo,  304.3,  636. 

es,  34,  233. 

fines,  1O4. 

doleo,  304.1. 

esse,  essetur,  333. 

fingo,  308.1. 

dolor,  81. 

est,  estur,  333. 

finis,  89.3. 

doml,  55,  69,  95,  4O3. 

-ester,  367.3. 

fI5,  231,  338. 

(Ionium,  335.3. 

est  qui,  588.3. 

flecto,  3O8.3. 

domus,  94,  95,  106.3. 

et,  34,  348,  388.5. 

fleo,  3O3. 

donee,  356,  533. 

et  .  .  .  et,  348. 

floresco,  314.2. 

dos,  88.1. 

eteiiim,  252. 

flu5,  313.1. 

dub  ltd,  636. 

etiam,  24O.6,  348,  282.1. 

fodio,  183.1,  313.2. 

due,  19O. 

etiamsl,  572. 

fons,  84.2,  89.5. 

ducentT,  131,  133. 

etsT,  358,  573. 

foras,  325.2. 

duco,  194,  3O8.1. 

-etum,  364.2. 

fore,  173,  619.1,  636. 

248 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


foris,  402. 

hodie,  98,  27O. 

in-,  246. 

fors,  1O3.2. 

hodiernus,  27O. 

-Ina,  264.3. 

forte,  103.2,  237.1. 

honor,  81. 

incipid,  213.2,  626. 

fortior,  115,  119. 

horred,  204.1. 

incold,  210. 

fortis,  115. 

hortor,  186,  202. 

incumbd,  21O. 

fortiter,  235.2. 

hortiis,  65. 

indiged,  37O. 

foved,  206.2. 

hostis,  82. 

indlgnus,  396,  588.3. 

frangd,  211.2. 

hue,  24O.2. 

indulged,  2O5. 

fremo,  21O. 

humane,  236.1. 

indud,  213.1. 

friged,  2O4.1. 

human!  ter,  236.1. 

Infer!,  126.2. 

fructus,  93. 

huiui,  4O3. 

inferior,  126.2. 

frugalior,  125. 

humilis,  123. 

inferd,  226. 

frugalissimus,  125. 

humus,  68. 

Infimus,  126.2,  416. 

frugi,  118,  125. 

Infra,  242. 

fruor,  215,  387. 

-ia,  265. 

ingg'nl,  69. 

fugio,  182.1,  213.2. 

-hums,  267.5. 

ingens,  128. 

fulcio,  218. 

-ias,  264.4. 

ingentior,  128. 

fulged,  2O5. 

ibi,  240.2. 

inimicus,  246. 

fulget,  233.1. 

-icius,  267.2. 

iniquus,  33.1. 

fumld,  211.2. 

-icus,  267.2,  267.6. 

in  mentem  venit,  365. 

fungor,  215,  387. 

id,  34,  3O4.2. 

inops,  117. 

fur,  84.4. 

idcircd,  518. 

inquam,  231. 

Gades,  1O2.2. 

ided,  518. 

insidiae,  102.3. 

Gadibus,  87. 

id  quod,  3O4.2. 

In  star,  1OO. 

gauded,  187,  2O7. 
geminl,  102.1. 
gemd,  21O. 

idem,  141,  145,  427,  528. 
-ides,  264.4. 
-ides,  264.4. 
iddneus,  129,  588.3. 

intellegd,  211.2. 
inter,      242,      311,      332, 
425.1,  639.3. 
interest,  369,  590. 

gener,  67. 
gens,  84.2. 

-idus,  269.2. 

nl  ils,  94. 

interficid,  213.2. 
interim,  237.  2. 

gero,  2O8.1. 
glgnd,  21O. 
gracilis,  123. 
gradior,  182.3,  215. 
gratia,  349,  639.1. 
gratiae,  1O4. 

igitur,  251. 
ignis,  82,  89.2. 
Tgndscd,  214.1. 
-lie,  264.2. 
Ilion,  72. 
-ilis,  269.3. 

interior,  126.1. 
intimus,  126.1. 
intra,  242. 
-inus,  267.1. 
-Inus,  267.2,  5,  7. 
invenid,  219.2. 

grex,  89.4. 

-Tlis,  267.2. 

id,  262. 

Imbed,  2O4.1. 

iliac,  240.2. 

ipse,  146,  424,  428. 

hac,  24O.2. 

ille,   141,    143,    153,  154, 

irascor,  215. 

haered,  2O5. 

426,  528,  61O. 

is,  34,  141,  144,  154,  426, 

haud,  240.6,  659. 

illic,  24O.2. 

528,  588.1,  610. 

baud  scid  an,  595. 

illinc,  24O.2. 

-is,  264.4. 

haurid,  218. 

illuc,  24O.2. 

iste,   141,  143,    153,  154, 

herl,  27O,  4O3. 

-illus  (-a,  -um),  264.1. 

426. 

herds,  91. 

imber,  84. 

it,  34. 

hesternus,  27O. 

imbud,  213.1. 

ita,     240.6,     282.1,    528, 

heu,  262. 

immined,  2O4.1. 

568. 

heus,  262. 

impedimenta,  1O4. 

itaque,  251. 

lilc  (pron.),  141,  142,  153, 

impled,  2O3. 

-(i)tas,  265. 

154,  426,  528. 

Tmus,  126.2,  416. 

item,  568. 

life  (adv.),  240.2. 

in,    34,    245,    311,    325.1, 

iter,  86,  88.2. 

hinc,  24O.2. 

332,  4O6,  639.3,  4. 

-(i)tia,  265. 

INDEX  OF  LATIN  WORDS 


249 


-ito,  273.2. 

longius,  382. 

-(i)tudo,  265. 

loquor,  215. 

-ium,  264.3. 

luceo,  205. 

-ius,  267.2,  6,  7. 

Iud5,  208.2. 

-Ivus,  267.2. 

luo,  213.1. 

jaceo,  2O4.1. 

maereo,  204.1. 

jacio,  182.1,  213.2. 

magis,  129,  227,  239. 

jam,  24O.3,  447.2,  449.4, 

magni,  362. 

537. 

magnificus,  124. 

jocus,  -T,  -a,  1O5.2. 

magno,  395. 

jubeo,  2O5,  604,  629. 

magnopere,  237.1. 

jugerum,  -a,  1O6.2. 

magnus,  125,  414. 

jungo,  208.1. 

major,  125,  414. 

junior,  128. 

majores,  1O2.1. 

Jupiter,  85. 

male,  239. 

jus,  89.3. 

maledicus,  124. 

jussu,  103.1. 

muli  in,  49O,  5O4.1. 

juvenis,  82,  128  (adj.). 

mallem,  504.1. 

juvo,  2O1.2. 

malo,     227,     5O4.4,    62G, 

juxta,  242. 

629. 

mains,  125. 

labor,  215. 

mane,  1OO. 

lac,  34. 

maneo,  205. 

lams,  96. 

manes,  1O2.3. 

laedo,  2O8.2. 

maims,  94. 

lambo,  212. 

margo,  89.6. 

lampas,  91. 

mas,  84.4. 

lapis,  77,  89.2. 

materia,  -ies,  1O6.1. 

large,  236.1. 

maturesco,  214.2. 

largior,  186,  220. 

matur5,  626. 

largiter,  236.1. 

maximam  partem,  316. 

lateo,  204.1. 

maxime,  129,  239. 

lavo,  2O1.2. 

maximus,  125,  414. 

lego,  211.2. 

mecum,  244. 

-lentus,  267.3. 

medius,  416. 

led,  80. 

mei,  138,  153,  420,  642. 

lepus,  90.2. 

mel,  34. 

liber,  67. 

melior,  125. 

liber,  109,  122. 

melius,  239. 

libere,  235.1,  238.2. 

memini,    230,     364,    364 

liberi,  67. 

N.  2. 

libet,  233.2. 

memor,  117. 

liceor,  2O7. 

-men,  266.4. 

licet,    233.2,    258,    504.3, 

mens,  84.2. 

571. 

mensa,  59. 

-licio,  182.2. 

mensis,  82,  89.2. 

linter,  88.2. 

-mentum,  266.4. 

Us,  84.4. 

mereo,  2O4.1. 

litterae,  1O4. 

mergo,  2O8.2. 

locus,  4O2. 

meridies,  98. 

locus,  -I,  -a,  105.2. 

messis,  82. 

metior,  22O. 

metuS,  213.1. 

meus,  139,  153,  61O. 

ml,  139. 

mico,  20O. 

miles,  77. 

mllia,  132,  133. 

militiae,  4O3. 

mille,  132,  133. 

minae,  1O2.3. 

minime,        239,        240.6, 

282.2. 

minimi,  362. 
minimo,  395. 
minimus,  125,  128. 
minor,  125. 
minoris,  362,  363. 
minuS,  213.1. 
minus,  239,  382. 
misceo,  2O4.2. 
miser,  111. 
misereor,  2O7. 
miseret,  233.2,  368. 
mi  si,  194. 
missus,  196. 
mitto,  194,  196,  2O8.2. 
modo,  237.1,  259,  563. 
momordi,  195. 
mone5,    171,     176,     177, 

193,  196,  2O4.1. 
monitus,  196. 
mons,  84.2,  89.5. 
mordeo,  195,  2O6.1. 
mores,  1O4. 
morior,  182.3,  215. 
mos,  81. 
moveo,  2O6.2. 
multum,        237.1,       239, 

316. 

multus,  125. 
mus,  84.4,  89.3. 
mythos,  72. 

nam,  252. 
namque,  252. 
nanciscor,  215. 
nascor,  215. 
natu,  1O3.1,  128. 
natu  maximus,  128. 
natii  minimus,  128. 
imvis,  82. 
ne,    254,    491,    496.3,    3, 


LATIN    <;U\MMAK 


AOO,  507,  I-"'      -I  i      -n. 

i,o:t.  nn.  A7;», uoi,  o  .-». 
nil  ...  i.  .».  00:1. 

oao.fi 

ll«'     •     .     .      HH    UIIIH4-I.     5IHI. 

..lilioll.     .'Ml. 

N.     .pollN.   M». 

ii..,.  :n,  oo.i. 

n«o 'IN.  oo'i. 

'.^«<  «<N(,  no i.:i. 

10. n. 
nun. 

loo,  OAA. 


,  4:14,  4:in,  MM,  no  i  . 
6Mi 

.....  <nmi.    I  IN,    I!JA. 
<,  OO.'I. 

.   .    .....  |ii(<,  5I4N. 


ntfqulor,   1  5JA. 


an,  mm. 

<|»||H,     I   HI. 

«<<>'<  >.    i  I'J.    IAI 

Uf, 

nT,  «ft». 

i.  II,  II.    100,  :ilO.  5JM.  001. 

00  '4. 
nhitflt,  -:i:i.  I. 

niHi,  -jnu,  AAO,  nrvo. 

•  ill,-,,.    iOI.I. 

>..)..,.  -jin. 

i.U.  Ml     I 


....i....    n»o.  .011 

....i.i.      IIMI.I. 

•  I.  .11.  .I...  r.oi.i. 

llAIO.     UU7,     A04.4.     0«0, 

IIOtltKII,  NO. 

iifln,    117.    440.0,    UM'I.U, 

i-»i    i-».i.  noN,  UNO.  onu, 

ooi,  001. 
ii.  >n.  In  in.  ,'IA,  A.'IT. 
llAil   till.  ?JM5J.»I. 
nonius  U40.A,  «HO.?J.  AUU. 


.....  i   iillill.  .110. 

......    .    .    .    ....i,     OO'V 

iii.n     ..I  111.  i  .  .  .     .  ,1   .  I  him 

UAO. 

urtM'i*,  !JI  I.I. 
miNii'i-.  i:u»,  iri:i.  oio. 
lionlT,   I  Nil. 
.....  <•  ..    I   -o.  <.i   • 

ii.  .MI  mm.  LIT)  r.'O. 

IIOVlNNllllllH,    1517. 
OOVIIM,    l«7. 
llllllfN.    Nl. 

....II.,,          I 


M'j.     151,    484, 
1:10,  ft7M. 

nil  in,  U40.A,  WHO.'J.  AIM. 
ii  .....  .|iiiuii.      U40.M,     001. 


I05J.  !». 
-HUN.  «07.». 


o!  MOM. 

..'•      i.  »4)j,   an, 


-.  -Jlft. 
..i.  ..  i,,.  •;!:«.  I. 
..)>  MI,  ..n,  U04.U. 
......  i...  •:!  1.1. 

......  i...  '.'i  1.1. 

.......  .  i  •«•  i 

IUII.I. 


(-a,  -nun,  •:<;  i   i 

4»4. 
opoi-lo,  «I7. 

..(..     M.       101. 

.-P..  ,i,-i.  189,1,  r,oi.:i. 
..,.,„,  i..  .  .  -.vio. 

,.is.  10:1.1.  101. 


..|>l  IIIIIIN,   I!4A. 
opiiH,  OAA. 
...     -oo.i. 
orAMo  oi,ii,|iui.  r.ON. 


orl»U.  NO.  ". 
»nl  lor.  HO. 
onl».  NU.O. 


.......  . 

ON  lONNU),  :t  I,  NO.  NN.  I 

......  i  .<.  :i  l,  NN.I. 

•  .HUH.  ::o7.:i. 

i.  ,.  .  •  ->.    •:  ift. 

,.„.  .,,(.  .  :tOH. 

IMMI.IO,   Mil.  8. 
|,  ill.  IN.     S".    HU.U, 

I.IIM-O.    M  I.I. 
I.MI.-O.      01    |. 
.  NO.  I. 

.  INM.I,  «i:t.y. 

I'm  IN,  0)1. 
pill'O,  OMO. 
piii-N.  N4.». 

I  .....  MM. 

|.lll   II,   «'|.H.     |    17. 
pllllllN.    00. 

P.M.  ..... 


...  • 

pnrvo,  :iim. 
.  I'Jft. 
«l  I.I. 


I.M).  in.  io. 

pill  .....    Ml  I.  I. 

put  I.  .r.   IH'J.:i.  9  I  A, 


i    ..,  P.  .     I  I  7. 

,  IUA. 

,  Ntilf). 

,  OH. 
p,  II,..  'I  I.I. 
I  .....  I.  o.  '.MIO.I. 

p,    II..H.    44)1. 

P.  -       i.  -:\  -'.  :«l  I.  :IJJ4. 


p«ro«HA,  ui  1.1. 
P.  -IK...  8M 

P.  .  p.-l  lor,  '.'  I  r.. 
P.      |4,  HO.I. 
P,  ss.o,,«.  -::to. 
p.'NsliituN,  IUA. 

P.  i..     •«•-. 

,  .,   .  .    -MJI.M,  :IOM. 

pIlNNlOIIIN.    1517. 

pit-UN.  ON. 

plNI'lN.    NO/.'. 
plMN,     I<J7. 
pi:,,   ,   ...      "01      I 

P>.  i.  ,  i.  -.  i:\.li. 


l\l»l  A    OF    liATIN     \\OKhS 


pi.    1.    ..      pi.    1..    •..      1   01.      1 

pro!  »«». 

i  ..       •  •    |(M    i  ••>  .iHO 

|>l.     1    II  Ml.  ,11.             .    |  O. 

pi  on,  i    .  ..i  .  Ml  A. 

ANO  i          «<l    IN,  OOO. 

plllll. 

p.oh.i..  ...  ,.  ••» 

.,M,          ,1.1               1      . 

pi,...,.,, 

PI.  '.   i 

i,iii  .  i.i  \  >.  .^  ja. 

pin.  imo.  :iOA. 

pi  onus.    I-H. 

•  iiii.i.  :....  ..i  i.  ..i.».  MH. 

phu  liiiuii. 

prop,\   '.MO,  M4M. 

uou  qiilu.  A47. 

1  »  1  i  i   i    i  1  i  i  i  i             1      *     • 

P  .    ••'•  1,  :toa. 

proplo.      1   '<•    1 

quTiMinxi".  .   i  i  '».  AHM. 

pi..  .      M..      IMA,     980, 

P.opi,  ,.    MM. 

quid,  a-l,  Ma7.  1.  a  10. 

p.  opi«<r«<A,  AIH. 

,|IMlllllll.     1    I1>.      1.0.      II 

p.-.    ...    ..     ''I 

prANlt«riiA,  MOO. 

.p.  ..I.   ...       '  IO.O. 

P..II,,  -our,  MO7. 

prAMuiu,  MMI. 

,,.H,  s,o.    -1   I.I. 

poii  no,  MI:I.  i. 

pi  ..MI.  MOO. 

.,,,,1.1..  i      1  10. 

poiif.    -  1  -. 

prAvhliiM,  1)14. 

........  7AI.  A7a  A')«>. 

poiio,    '"  ' 

pioxitnfl.  Mao. 

noii  quTu,  A47. 

U.M,  HO.A. 

p,    OV    ,,,.,.              1      'I.       1 

qulH.    :il.    1  IH.    140,    IAO, 

pop,.s,  i.  H»A. 

pi,  .  :i  I. 

i  .1.  1:11.  A7H. 

poi      .      •   Ii. 

P...).  i  .  -:i  .    •.    .<.s 

quK  I  i  . 

port  -lii«<i-«\  -  IO. 

pi.,  .  .  00. 

.iiii-.pi.uii.  i  n>.  in. 

poi  1  1.    ii          'M 

pfltfu&tur,  uaa.a. 

.,.,...,..      MM          1     Ml.       1                         II 

poi  tttt,  oo. 

p.  lit  IN.    HO.M. 

qilUquo,   1  10.   1  M.   i:»:i. 

pos.o.      l'>    ..       'I    l.|. 

qulNqulN,   110,   IAO,  AHM. 

i  •  -i     •  •  •   <;.M|. 

•  inn.   IAO. 

quTvTN.  1  10. 

qua,  Ma  7.1. 

quo.  MA4,  AOO,    AO7,  AaO. 

posl,-,   1.     |     'I, 

-i«  M   row,  :»04.9. 

AHI.M. 

posl.-llo,.      1     -,.     - 

«)ii.i«%rot  UOtl(  ott^li 

uou  quo,  ••  i  . 

posl,,,,  am.     '   ...      •     o 

quaiU.   1AM.   IAJ.  AHI.I. 

uou  quO  uou,  A47. 

!•••"-  nuts.   IMO.M.  417. 

•  i"  M...    v;  .    i.   -10.  I.  MOO, 

quoit.i.  -.'Ao.  Aaa. 

POSH,,  |l«\  OH. 

:»HI,      414,      41  A.     AMA, 

quod  (irl  i,  :i  1.  :iO4.M. 

posiiiuiiiN.   IMO.M. 

nni.M. 

qiiiMliiMiiiJ  K'JAl.AU.AIA. 

Itl, 

.,.»>.  M  NT,  A07. 

AIO.    •!•> 

poiio,.  i-o.i.  ant. 

.|i.,iiiulin.  MAO,  A88« 

uAu  quod,  A47« 

,...i  .  .  ..  in  M  M, 

<iu>iM,<,  Mum,      MAH,      A7O, 

uou  quod  uou,  A47. 

p..|  ,,,,,,,,,..,    1    Ml.  |. 

A  70   N. 

,,.,OM,.  MAO,  MA7. 

poll,  is 

.iii.iiiivlM.       M40.4,       UAH, 

quAiuhiUN.  MAI,  AOO.  AO7, 

|.rm«.    "  1 

ATM. 

Al  1. 

pnioliiMi,    -MM    1. 

.,,,  ..,.1  ,.,.     IAO. 

qiioiiluin,  MA7i  A44,  A4A, 

pi  M     '  >'.    M:».a. 

•  luuiulA,  M4O.a,  MAO,  MA7, 

.  n. 

pnii<f.-i.  |  i  •    .;|  1. 

•It.  AHI.M, 

qiioqiir.     MS. 

p.  «  >  f,    «  .0.    «•.  i  o:i.:t. 

.,,,  ...i  , 

.,.101     MM.I      I   M,           IAO. 

P.,  i,.  ..,i...  -i  i.:i. 

<in.nilii*.   IA-.'.   IAI.  AHI.I. 

qiiol.  ill.   1  •••:.  IAI.  AHI.I. 

pi    .     Ml...        -II 

qiliilll  us.  HIM,  ,11,  >.   AHM. 

,,o,.n,  ,.-..  |  10.  1,  AHI.M. 

pridir,  OH. 

......1    MM.I     MM.       IAO. 

pi  -  ;  ;.  i  .    MH. 

qililHl.   -»U>.   A07. 

1-ftdTcli 

,,i  IIMII.M.  -  ;•>.    i  IH. 

<ni:i(,  i.  i  :IM. 

i-AdTx,  }H. 

p.  nuns,    i  -<;.  i  .    i  .0     i 

MiniMo.  IH-.M.  -:ia.». 

rftdo,  MOH.M. 

110.    M.      IIN. 

-quo.  III.    .MS. 

.  ,,.....        IH-.M.        107.4, 

pin.,,  P        ...     I  I   .   ,  M     - 

<|.l<    MKKllMOlllllll,    AOH. 

•i 

prior.    !•«.!.    M  ; 

<l  in-ii.l  ii  111  ,    I  AO. 

rftrfl,  " 

I  .     '  •••' 

quoo,  MMI,  MMO. 

i-JlrA,  I8€ 

,..  .,,.,.,,,•,.  |  .«;      .  :  i 

,,.1,-ror.  'S  1  A. 

ro-,  rod-,  'M  <• 

p.o. 

.,"..      •  i       "I.        IIS.      ii-. 

i  •••  01  ,  lor.  aOA« 

252 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


rectus,  196. 

red  do,  211.1. 

redimd,  197.1,  211.3. 

redire,  246. 

refero,  226. 

refert,  233.2,  369,  59O. 

reg5,  171,  178,  179,  193, 

194,  196,  2O8.1. 
relinquS,  211.2. 
reliqui,  436,  438. 
reliquiae,  1O2.3. 
reminlseor,  315,  364. 
reor,  2O7. 
repente,  537. 
reperio,  219.1. 
requies,  1O6.4. 
res,  97. 
resisto,  211.1. 
restis,  83. 

retineo,  197.3,  304.2. 
rex,  78. 
rexi,  194. 
rideo,  194,  305. 
risi,  194. 
Romae,  55,  61. 
rumpo,  311.3. 
ruo,  313.1. 
rupes,  84.1. 
ruri,  87,  4O2. 
rus,  89.3,  325.2. 

sacer,  11O,  127. 

sacerrimus,  127. 

saepe,  239. 

saepissime,  339. 

saepius,  239. 

sal,  90.1. 

salio,  317. 

sancio,  318. 

sane,  383.1,  569. 

sanguis,  89.2. 

sapid,  183.1. 

sat,  34. 

satis,  357. 

satis  habeo,  626. 

scando,  211.3. 

scilicet,  282.1. 

scindo,  211.1. 

scio,  626. 

scit,  34. 

-sco,  273.1. 

scribo,  194,  196,  2O8.1. 


scrips!,  194. 

scrlptus,  196. 

se,  138,  421,  433.2,  61O. 

se-,  sed-,  246,  377. 

secedere,  246. 

seco,  2OO. 

secum,  244. 

secundum,  242. 

secundus,  13O,  132. 

securis,  83. 

securus,  275.3. 

sed,  34,  25O. 

sedeo,  2O6.2. 

sedes,  82. 

seges,  88.2. 

semel,  132. 

senex,  82,  86,  128  (adj.). 

senior,  128. 

sentid,  218. 

sequor,  186,  215. 

sero,  2O9. 

si,  34,  359,  55O,  567,  572, 

593. 

si  minus,  55O,  561  N. 
si  non,  55O,  56O,  561. 
sic,  528,  568. 
sicut,  26O,  568. 
sileo,  204.1. 
similis,  123. 
similiter,  238.3. 
simul  (ac),  256,  53O. 
siiiuil    atque,    256,    53O, 

532.2. 

sin,  259,  55O,  563. 
sine,  343. 
singuli,  130,  133. 
sino,  2O9,  629. 
si  quis,  149. 
sitis,  83. 
slve,  349. 

si ve  .  .  .  slve,  349. 
-s5,  373.3. 
socer,  67. 
s51,  34,  90.1. 
sole5,  187,  307,  626. 
s51us,  112,  424. 
solvi,  195. 
solvo,  195,  211.3. 
sono,  200. 
sors,  84.2. 
sparg5,  208.2. 
sperno,  209. 


spes,  97. 
-spicio,  183.2. 
splendeo,  2O4.1. 
spondeo,  2O6.1. 
sponte,  -tis,  1O3.2. 
stat,  34. 
statim,  237.2. 
statuo,  213.1. 
sterno,  2O9. 
stirps,  84.2. 
-stiti,  2O1.1. 
sto,  201.1. 
strideo,  206.3. 
stringo,  2O8.1. 
struS,  213.1. 
studeo,  204.1,  626. 
stuped,  2O4.1. 
suadeo,  2O5. 
sub,  34,  245,  311,  332. 
subigo,  211.2. 
subito,  537. 
subter,  245,  311. 
sui,  138,  153,  642. 
sum,  173,  221. 
sumrnus,  126.2,  416. 
sumo,  211.2. 
super,  245,  311,  332. 
super!,  126.2. 
superior,  126.2. 
supra,  242. 
MI  pi-cm  us,  126.2. 
sus,  85. 

suspicio,  182.2. 
suus,  139,   140,  153,  421, 
433,  433.3,  61O. 

taceo,  3O4.1. 
taedet,  333.3,  368. 
talis,153, 154,538,588.1. 
tarn,  34O.4,  588.1. 
tamen,  35O,  561.2,  569. 
tametsl,  572. 
tamquam  (si),  26O,  567. 
tango,  211.1. 
tanti,  362,  363. 
tantopere,  528. 
tantus,     153,     154,     528, 

588.1. 
-te,  34. 
tego,  208.1. 
tendo,  211.1. 
tengbrae,  37,  1O2.3. 


INDEX  OF  LATIN  WORDS 


253 


teneo,  197.2,  2O4.2. 

ubicumque,  582. 

tener,  111. 

-M  IMIS,  96. 

tenus,  841,  243. 

ulciscor,  215. 

ter,  34,  132. 

nilus,  112,  151,  432,  434, 

-teruus,  27O. 

436. 

tero,  2O9. 

ulterior,  126.1. 

terra  marique,  4O2. 

ultimus,  126.1,  417. 

terreo,  204.1. 

ultra,  242. 

texo,  210. 

-ulus  (-a,      -um),      264.1, 

Tiberis,  82. 

269.4. 

Tibure,  -I,  87. 

umquam,  24O.3. 

timeo,  2O4.1. 

mule,  581.2. 

-tiiius,  27O. 

-muliis,  192. 

-tmus,  27O. 

ruiTiis,  36.2,  131. 

-tio  (-si5),  266.3. 

unus,  112,  130,  131,  424, 

-to,  273.2. 

433.3. 

tollo,  211.1,  226. 

urbs,  84. 

toiiat,  233.1. 

-uri5,  273.3. 

-tor  (-sor),  266.2. 

uro,  2O8.1. 

torpeo,  2O4.1. 

usquam,  24O.2. 

torqueo,  2O5. 

ut    (uti),    34,     254,     255, 

tot.  34,  152,  154. 

260,  493,  506,  5O7,  516, 

totiens,  24O.4. 

519,     528,    530,    532.2, 

totus,  112,  402. 

568,  571,  581.2,  6O4. 

trabs,  76. 

ut  eo,  507. 

traho,  208.1. 

ut  ne,  5O8. 

trans,  242,  311,  32O. 

ut  non,  255,  5O8,  519. 

tremo,  21O. 

ut  si,  567. 

tres,  130,  131. 

uter,  112,  151,  436. 

tribuo,  213.1. 

uterque,  436,  439. 

tribus,  96. 

utinain,  484  N. 

tridens,  84.3. 

utor,  215,  387. 

triste,  237.1. 

utrique,  439. 

-trix,  266.2. 

utriusque,  36.2. 

-trum,  266.4. 

ul  rum,  240.5. 

tu,  34,  137,  153,  610. 

utriim    .    .    .    an    (anne), 

tueor,  207. 

281. 

tui,  138,  153,  42O,  642. 

an  iMiinc)    °S1 

turn,  240.3. 

utrumne,  24O.5. 

tune,  240.3. 

turris,  82. 

vae,  262. 

-tus,  267.4. 

valuing,  68. 

-tus  (-sus),  266.3. 

vTis,  vasa,  1O6.2. 

tussis,  82. 

rates,  82. 

tuus,  139,  153. 

-ve,  34,  249. 

ve-,  246. 

ubi,      24O.2,      256,     530, 

vecors,  246. 

532.2,  581.2. 

veho,  208.1. 

ubi  prlmum,  53O. 

vel,  34,  249,  414. 

vel  ...  vel,  249. 

velim,  49O,  5O4.1. 

vellem,  5O4.1. 

vellS,  211.3. 

velut(sl),  26O,  567. 

veni,  195. 

venio,  195,  219.2. 

ventum  est,  233.3. 

ver,  88.2. 

vere,  235.1,  236.2. 

vereor,  186,  2O7,  626. 

VergJli,  7O. 

vergo,  212. 

ver5,  236.2,  25O,  282.1. 

verro,  211.3. 

versus,  241,  242. 

vertex,  89.4. 

verti,  195. 

verto,  195,  211.3. 

verum,  25O. 

vescor,  215,  387. 

vesper,  67. 

vespere,  -I,  87,  403. 

vester,  139,  153. 

vestri,  42O,  642. 

vestrum,  137,  420. 

veterrimus,  127. 

veto,  2OO,  6O4,  629. 

vetus,  117,  127. 

vicis,  -em,  -e,  103.3. 

victor,  79. 

vide,  496.3. 

video,  195,  196,  206.2. 

vidi,  195. 

vincio,  218. 

vinco,  211.2. 

vir,  34,  66. 

virgo,  8O. 

virus,  68. 

vis,  85. 

vlsus,  196. 

vivo,  2O8.1. 

vix,  537. 

voblscum,  244. 

volo,  221,227,  504.4,626, 

629. 

volvo,  211.3. 
vulgus,  68. 
vultur,  9O.2. 


742 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS 

The  numbers  refer  to  sections 


Abbreviations,  728. 

Ablative,  55, 243, 245  ;  in  -abus,  62  ;  forms 
as  adverbs,  237  ;  uses  of,  3O5,  372-4O7: 
originally  three  cases,  372  ;  Ablative  Prop- 
er, of  separation,  374-377  ;  of  source, 
378;  of  personal  agent,  379;  of  com- 
parison, 380-382,  415  ;  Instrumental,  of 
cause,  384,  385  ;  of  means,  386-389  ; 
of  manner,  39O,  391  ;  of  accordance, 
391 ;  of  attendant  circumstance,  391 ;  of 
accompaniment,  392  ;  of  degree  of  differ- 
ence, 393  ;  of  quality,  394 ;  of  price, 
395  ;  of  specification,  396  ;  supine  in  -u 
as,  655  ;  Ablative  Absolute,  397-399  ; 
Locative,  of  place  where,  4O1-4O3  ;  of 
place  from  which,  4O4,  4O5  ;  of  time  at 
which,  406  ;  of  time  within  which,  407. 

Acatalectic,  7O2. 

Accent,  38-4O;  of  genitives  in  -I  for  -il, 
69,  70. 

•Accompaniment,  ablative  of,  393. 

Accordance,  ablative  of,  391 

Accusative,  55,  242,  245,  3O5  ;  as  object, 
3O8  ;  with  intransitive  verbs,  3O9-313  ; 
with  impersonal  verbs,  314  ;  with  passive 
voice,  315,  317,  318;  as  adverb,  237, 
316  ;  cognate,  313  ;  two  accusatives  with 
verb,  317.  318;  Greek,  321;  subject  of 
infinitive,  322  ;  in  exclamations,  323  ; 
time  and  space,  324  ;  limit  of  motion, 
325  ;  infinitive  without  subject,  626  ; 
with,  628,  629. 

Active  Voice,  158,  442. 

Adjectives,  defined,  7,  41;  declension  of, 
107-118 :  gender,  1O7  ;  of  1st  and  2d 
decl.,  1O8-112  ;  of  3d  decl.,  113-117:  of 
three  endings,  114  ;  of  two  endings,  115  ; 
of  one  ending,  116,  117;  indeclinable, 
118  ;  with  -lus  in  gen.  and  -I  in  dat.,  112  ; 
with  -e  in  abl.,  116  ;  comparison  of,  regu- 
lar, 119-124  ;  irregular,  125  ;  defective, 

254 


126-128 ;    with    magis    and    maxime, 

129  ;  numeral,  13O :  table  of.  132  ;  declen- 
sion of,  131,  133,  134  ;  symbols  of,  135  ; 
pronominal,  151;  correlative,  152,  154; 
verbal,  157;  participial,  116, 121, 167.3; 
derivative,  267-27O;  compounds,  275, 

276.2  ;    agreement    of,    293-295,    30O, 
4O8 ;    uses    of,    with    dative,    344 ;    as 
nouns,  4O9-411;  as  adverbs,  412  ;  of  or- 
dinal  numerals,   413  ;    of   comparatives 
and  superlatives,  414-418  ;   of  pronomi- 
nal, 436-439  ;  subordinate  clause  as  (at- 
tributive), 5OO  ;  relative  clause  as,  585  ; 
infinitive  with,  63O.2  ;  attributive,  gerun- 
dive as,  643.1;  participle  as,  649-651; 
order  of,  667. 

Adverbial  Clause,  5O1;  of  purpose,  517, 
518  ;  of  result,  527,  528  ;  of  time,  529  ; 
of  cause,  541;  of  condition,  550  ;  of  com- 
parison, 566  ;  of  concession,  569  ;  rela- 
tive, 586  ;  order  of,  672. 

Adverbs,  defined,  7,  41;  numeral,  13O, 
132;  formation  of,  235-237:  in  -e, 
235.1.  236  ;  in  -(i)ter,  235.2,  236.1;  in 
-5,  236.2;  in  -tim  (-sim),  -im,  237.2; 
in  -tus,  237.3  ;  accus.  and  abl.  forms, 
237,  316  ;  comparison  of,  regular,  238  ; 
irregular.  239;  classes  of,  manner,  24O.1; 
place,  24O.2  ;  time,  240.3 ;  degree, 
24O.4  ;  question,  24O.5  ;  assent  and  de- 
nial, 24O.6  ;  number,  24O.7;  adjectives 
used  as,  412;  compounds,  275.3,  276.4; 
subordinate  clause  as,  5O1 ;  uses  of,  656- 
663;  position  of,  657,  658;  negative, 
659-663  ;  order  of,  669. 

Affirmative,  expressed  by  two  negatives, 
660,  661. 

Agent,  dative  of,  339  ;  ablative  of,  379. 

Agreement,  of  words,  288.1;  predicate 
noun,  29O,  297.2  ;  appositive,  291,  292, 

297.3  ;  adjective,  293-295,  3OO  ;  parti- 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS 


255 


ciple,  293,  295.2,  297.4,  298.3  ;  pro- 
noun in  general,  293  ;  relative  pronoun, 
299-3O4  ;  antecedent,  3O2-3O4  ;  verb, 
296-298 ;  agreement,  in  gender,  29O, 
295,  297.4  ;  in  number,  297,  298.1  ;  in 
case,  29O,  291,  292.3,  299  ;  in  person, 
298.2  ;  gender  and  number,  292.1,  299; 
number  and  person,  289,  296  ;  gender, 
number  and  case,  293  ;  partitively,  292.2; 
collectively,  294.1  and  2  ;  with  one  of 
several,  295  ;  with  nearer  word,  294.1, 
297.2  and  3  ;  with  the  sense,  294.2  and 
3  ;  of  relative  with  antecedent,  299-3O1 ; 
by  attraction,  3O2  ;  by  repetition,  3O3.2; 
by  transfer,  3O3.3. 

Alphabet,  13. 

Anaphora,  675. 

Answers,  282. 

Antecedent,  299-3O4  :  agreement  of  rela- 
tive with,  299-3O1;  attraction  of,  3O2.2; 
omission  of,  3O3.1;  repetition  of,  3O3.2; 
transfer  of,  303.3. 

Apodosis,  551. 

Appositive,  291,  292,  297.3 ;  partitive, 
292.2  ;  with  locative,  292.3  ;  of  relative 
with  whole  sentence,  3O4.2  ;  of  genitive 
with  a  possessive  pronoun,  424  ;  clauses, 
499  ;  of  result,  521,  526  ;  infinitive  as, 
624. 

Arsis,  70O. 

Aspirate,  19. 

Asyndeton,  253. 

Attendant  Circumstance,  abl.  of,  391. 

Attraction,  of  relative,  3O2.1;  of  antece- 
dent, 3O2.2  ;  subjunctive  by,  62O. 

Attributive,  adjective,  295  ;  genitive,  347- 
358  ;  clauses,  50O,  585,  587,  672  ;  ge- 
rundive, 643.1;  participle,  65O. 

Breathings,  19,  23. 
Bucolic  Caesura,  715. 

Caesura,  7O3,  7O4,  713,  714,  715. 

Calendar,  the  Roman,  718-726. 

Cardinals,  ISO  133. 

Case  Endings,  defined,  54  ;  table  of,  99. 

Cases,  table  of,  55  ;  principal  uses  of,  55  ; 
locative,  55,  61,  69,  87,  95,  98  ;  having 
same  ending,  58  ;  uses  of,  3O5  :  nom., 
3O6 ;  voc.,  3O7;  ace.,  308-325;  dat., 
326-345  ;  gen.,  346-371;  abl.,  372-4O7. 
See  Agreement. 


Catalectic,  7O2. 

Cause,  conjunctions  of,  252,  257;  ablative 
of,  384,  385  ;  clauses  of,  541-549 :  in- 
troduced by  cum,  542  ;  quando,  543  ; 
quod,  quia,  quoniam,  544-549  :  with 
indicative,  545,  548  ;  with  subjunctive, 
546,  547;  relative  clause  of,  586.4  ;  par- 
ticiple denoting,  651. 

Characteristic,  clause  of,  586.2,  587-589. 

Chiasmus,  675. 

Clauses,  denned,  285 ;  coordinate,  286 ; 
principal  (leading),  287,  461,  477-496; 
subordinate  (dependent),  287,  462,  497- 
62O  ;  substantive,  498,  499;  appositive, 
499  ;  attributive,  5OO  ;  adverbial,  5O1 ; 
purpose,  5O6-518  ;  result,  519-528  ; 
time,  529-54O  ;  cause,  541-549  ;  condi- 
tion, 55O-565  ;  comparison,  566-568  ; 
concession,  569-572;  negative  with  qum, 
573-579  ;  relative,  58O-589  ;  interroga- 
tive, 59O-595. 

Cognate  Accusative,  313. 

Collective  Nouns,  294.2. 

Comparison,  defined,  44  ;  degrees  of,  119  ; 
of  adjectives,  119-129;  of  adverbs,  238, 
239  ;  conjunctions  of,  26O  ;  ablative  of, 
38O-382,  415  ;  clauses  of,  566-568 : 
conditional,  567;  correlative,  568;  rela- 
tive, 586.6. 

Compounds,  263.2 ;  nouns :  with  verb, 
274.1;  with  preposition,  274.2;  adjec- 
tives: with  noun,  275.1,  of  noun  and 
verb,  275.2  ;  with  preposition  (adverb), 
275.3;  verbs:  with  noun,  276.1;  with 
adjective,  276.2  ;  with  verb,  276.3  ;  with 
adverb,  276.4  ;  with  preposition,  276.5  ; 
stem-vowel  changes  in,  197;  of  do  and 
sto,  2O1,  211;  of  faci5,  213.2  ;  of  sum, 
221;  of  fero,  226;  of  volo,  227;  of 
queo,  229  ;  dative  with,  332. 

Compound  Sentence,  284-287. 

Concession,  clauses  of,  569-572 :  with 
quamquam,  57O  ;  with  cum,  licet,  ut, 
ne,  571;  with  etsi,  etc.,  572;  relative, 
586.7. 

Concessive,  conjunctions,  258  ;  subjunctive, 
483,  491;  participle,  651. 

Conclusion,  of  conditional  sentence,  defined, 
489.  551;  imperative  or  jussive  subjunc- 
tive in,  554. 

Conditional  Sentence,  55O-565,  489 :  par- 
ticles introducing,  259,  550;  parts  of, 


256 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


551;  moods  of,  553,  554;  kinds,  condi- 
tion as  fact,  553,  554  ;  as  possible,  555, 
556 ;  as  contrary  to  fact,  557,  558  ;  op- 
posing and  negative,  559-562  ;  wish  and 
proviso,  563-565;  comparison,  567;  rela- 
tive, 586.5  ;  participle  denoting  condition 
in,  651;  sequence  of  tenses  violated  in, 
471;  imperative  in  conclusion  of,  554; 
in  indirect  discourse,  613-619  :  condition 
as  fact,  615  ;  as  possible,  616 ;  as  con- 
trary to  fact,  617-619. 

Conditional  Subjunctive,  in  principal  clauses, 
48O,  485-49O,  491  ;  in  subordinate 
clauses,  555-565. 

Conjugation,  defined,  45,  155,  164  ;  the 
four  regular,  17O:  first,  174-175;  sec- 
ond, 176,  177;  third,  178,  179;  fourth, 
180, 181;  in  -15, 182-184;  of  deponents, 
185,  186;  of  semi-deponents,  187;  peri- 
phrastic, 188  ;  peculiar  forms  in,  189- 
193  ;  changes  in  stem,  193-197;  of  ir- 
regular verbs,  331-239  ;  defective,  33O- 
333. 

Conjunctional  Clauses,  5O3-579  ;  transition 
to,  5O4,  505  ;  of  purpose,  5O6-518  :  sub- 
stantive, 51O-516  ;  adverbial,  517,  518  ; 
of  result,  519-538 :  substantive,  531- 
536  ;  adverbial,  537,  538  ;  of  time,  539- 
54O :  introduced  by  postquam,  ubi, 
etc.,  53O-533  ;  dum,  donee,  quoad, 
533  ;  antequam,  priusquam,  534  ; 
cum  temporal,  535 ;  cum  historical, 
536  ;  cum  inverse,  537;  cum  coincident, 
538  ;  cum  relative,  539  ;  cum  conces- 
sive, 571;  of  cause,  introduced  by  cum, 
543  ;  qua iido.  543  ;  quod,  quia,  quo- 
ii him.  with  indicative,  545,  548  ;  with 
subjunctive,  546,  547  ;  of  condition,  55O- 
565  :  particles  introducing,  55O  ;  parts 
of,  551;  moods  of,  553,  554  ;  kinds:  as 
fact,  553,  554  ;  as  possible,  555,  556  ; 
as  contrary  to  fact,  557,  558  ;  opposing 
and  negative,  559-563  ;  of  wish  and  pro- 
viso, 563-565  ;  of  comparison,  566- 
568  ;  negative  with  quln,  573-579. 

Conjunctions,  defined,  8,  41,  247;  coor- 
dinate :  copulative,  348 ;  disjunctive, 
349  ;  adversative,  35O  ;  inferential,  351; 
causal,  252  ;  omission  of,  253  ;  pairs  of, 
248-250  ;  subordinate :  final,  254  ;  con- 
secutive, 355  ;  temporal,  356  ;  causal, 
357:  concessive,  258;  conditional,  259; 


comparative,    26O ;    interrogative,    261 ; 

order  of,  671. 
Consonants,  classes,  17-35  ;  sounds  of,  29  ; 

stems  of  3d  declension,  75-81;  of  verbs, 

308-313. 
Coordinate,  conjunctions,  348-353;  clauses, 

386. 
Correlative,  adjectives,  151;    pairs,    153, 

154  ;  clauses  of  comparison,  568. 

Dactyl,  698,  7OO. 

Dative,  55  ;  in  -abus,  63  ;  uses  of,  305, 
336-345  :  as  indirect  object,  336  ;  with 
transitive  verbs,  327,  338;  of  direction 
of  motion,  339  ;  with  intransitive  verbs, 
33O  ;  with  impersonal  verbs,  333.3,  331  ; 
with  compound  verbs,  333  ;  with  adjec- 
tives, nouns,  and  adverbs,  333  ;  of  person 
or  thing  concerned,  334-34O ;  of  refer- 
ence, 335-338,  345  ;  ethical,  336  ;  with 
verbs  of  separation,  337;  of  supposed 
standpoint,  338  ;  of  agent,  339  ;  of  pos- 
sessor, 34O  ;  predicate,  of  tendency,  343  ; 
of  purpose,  343-345. 

Declarative  Sentence,  379.1;  in  indirect 
discourse,  600,  6O3. 

Declension,  defined,  43. 

Declensions,  of  nouns,  number  of,  5<>  ;  how 
distinguished,  56  ;  table  of,  57  ;  first,  59- 
63;  second,  64-73 ;  third,  73-93;  fourth, 
93-96  ;  fifth,  97,  98  ;  nouns  variable  in 
(heteroclites),  1O6 ;  of  adjectives,  1O7- 
118;  of  numerals,  131,  133,  134;  of 
pronouns,  137-148  ;  of  participles,  116, 
167.3. 

Defective,  adjectives,  136-138 ;  nouns, 
101-103  ;  verbs,  33O-232. 

Definition,  genitive  of  exact,  348. 

Degree,  adverbs  of,  24O.4 ;  ablative  of, 
393. 

Degrees  in  comparison.  119  ;  of  adjectives, 
119-129  ;  of  adverbs,  338,  239. 

Demonstrative  Pronouns,  141-14,5,  153, 
154  ;  3O4.3  ;  uses  of,  426,  427  ;  order 
of,  668. 

Denial,  adverbs  of,  24O.6. 

Dentals,  18,  21;  stems  ending  in,  77. 

Dependent :  see  Subordinate. 

Deponent  Verb,  185,  186,  2O2,  207,  215, 
22O,  647. 

Derivatives,  263.1;  nouns:  from  nouns, 
264  ;  from  adjectives,  365  ;  from  verbs, 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS 


257 


366;  adjectives:  from  nouns,  267;  from 
adjectives,  368 ;  from  verbs,  369  ;  from 
adverbs,  37O;  verbs:  from  nouns,  371  ; 
from  adjectives,  314.3,  373  ;  from  verbs, 
214.3,  373;  adverbs:  from  adjectives, 
335,  34O.1. 

Desideratives,  273.3. 

Diaeresis,  704  ;  also  called  Bucolic  Caesura, 
715. 

Diastole,  709. 

Diminutives,  364.1,  368. 

Diphthongs,  16  ;  sounds  of,  28  ;  quantity 
of,  33.1. 

Direct  Discourse,  597. 

Direct  Object,  158,  3O8,  665. 

Direct  Questions:  word-questions,  380.1; 
sentence-questions,  38O.3  ;  direct  double 
questions,  381  ;  answers  to  questions, 
383  ;  rhetorical  questions,  383,493,  603; 
in  indirect  discourse,  599,  6O1. 

Direct  Quotations,  inquam  in,  231. 

Distributives,  13O,  133,  134. 

Double  Accusative,  317,  318. 

Double  Questions,  direct,  381  ;  indirect, 
594. 

Elegiac  Distich,  717. 

Elision,  7O5. 

Ellipsis,  74O. 

Endings,  of  nouns :  denned,  54  ;  blended 
with  stem,  54  ;  table  of,  99  ;  of  compari- 
son :  in  adjectives,  12O-138  ;  in  adverbs, 
338,  339  ;  of  verbs  :  tables,  168,  169  ; 
subject  implied  in,  389. 

Epicenes,  53. 

Epistolary,  imperfect,  449.3 ;  perfect, 
456  ;  pluperfect,  458. 

Ethical  Dative,  336. 

Etymology :  see  Words. 

Exact  Definition,  genitive  of,  348. 

Exclamations,  363,  379.4  ;  nominative  in, 
3O7  ;  accusative  in,  333  ;  infinitive  in, 
630.3. 

Feet,  697,  698. 

Figures,  of  prosody,  705-711  ;  of  speech, 

675,  740. 
Finite  Verb,  157,  378,  289  ;  uses  of,  44O 

63O.    See  Verbs. 
Frequentatives.  373.3. 
Future  Perfect  Tense,  156,  16O,  161,  167, 

473. 


Future  Tense,  156,  16O,  161,  167,  473  ; 

of  infinitive,   time  expressed   by,  635  ; 
verbs  lacking,  636. 

Gender,  kinds  of,  49;  rules,  for  natural,  5O; 
grammatical,  51  ;  common  (epicenes), 
53  ;  of  indeclinable  nouns,  51.3,  1OO  ; 
nouns  variable  in  (heterogeneous),  105  ; 
of  adjectives,  107.  See  Agreement. 

Genitive,  55  ;  stem  of  noun  seen  in  endings 
of,  57 ;  in  -51,  -as,  62 ;  in  -um  for 
-arum,  63  ;  in  -I  for  -ii,  69,  7O ;  uses  of, 
305,  346-371  :  attributive,  347-358 : 
of  exact  definition  (origin  and  material), 
348  ;  with  causa  and  gratia,  349 ; 
subjective,  35O ;  objective,  351,  353, 
430  :  with  verbs,  of  memory,  364-366  ; 
of  judicial  action,  367  ;  impersonal,  368, 
369  ;  of  plenty  or  want,  37O  ;  of  partak- 
ing and  acquiring,  371  ;  of  possession, 
353,  36O  ;  of  quality  (number,  measure, 
time,  space),  354,  36O ;  of  the  whole 
(partitive),  355-358,  36O,  43O ;  predi- 
cate, of  possession,  36O  ;  of  quality,  360; 
of  the  whole,  36O  ;  of  indefinite  price  or 
value,  361-363  ;  in  apposition  with  a 
possessive  pronoun,  424. 

Gerund,  157, 185,  193,  637  ;  uses  of,  639- 
641. 

Gerundive,  157,  185,  188,  193,  339,  638; 
uses  of,  64O,  643-644 :  as  attributive 
adjective,  643.1  ;  as  predicate  adjective, 
643.3  ;  in  periphrastic  conjugation, 
644.1  ;  to  express  purpose,  644.3. 

Grammatical  Order,  of  words,  664-673  ; 
of  subordinate  clauses,  672. 

Greek  Accusative,  321. 

Greek  Nouns,  of  1st  decl.,  63  ;  of  2d  decl., 
73  ;  of  3d  decl.,  91,  93  ;  quantity  of,  695. 

Gutturals,  18,  31,  33  ;  stems  ending  in,  78. 

Hendiadys,  74O. 
Heteroclites,  106. 
Heterogeneous  Nouns,  1O5. 
Hexameter,  68O,  713-715. 
Hiatus,  706. 

Historical,  perfect,  160  ;  tenses,  161 ;  pres- 
ent, 447.1,  470  ;  infinitive,  631.1. 
Hortatory:  see  Jussive  Subjunctive. 
Hypallage,  74O. 
Hyperbaton,  74O. 
Hyperbole,  74O. 
Hysteron  Proteron,  740. 


258 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


Iambus,  698. 

Ictus,  70O. 

Imperative  Mood,  159 ;  tenses  of,  16O, 
473-475  ;  in  commands,  495  ;  in  prohi- 
bitions, 496  ;  in  conclusion  of  conditional 
sentence,  554. 

Imperative  Sentence,  279.3  ;  in  indirect 
discourse,  599,  603,  6O4. 

Imperfect  Tense,  156,  160,  161,  167; 
epistolary,  449.3. 

Impersonal  Verbs,  233,  442.4  ;  accusative 
with,  314  ;  dative  with,  233.2,  331  ; 
genitive  with,  368,  369. 

Inceptives  (inchoatives),  214,  273.1. 

Indeclinable,  nouns,  51.3,  1OO ;  adjec- 
tives, 118. 

Indefinite,  pronouns,  149,  ISO ;  uses  of, 
430-435  ;  second  person  with  subjunc- 
tive, 494. 

Indicative  Mood,  159  ;  tenses  of,  16O,  445- 
460;  in  principal  clauses,  477-479;  in 
subordinate  clauses,  497,  529,  535,  541, 
553,  568,  57O,  572,  585,  6O7. 

Indirect  Discourse,  defined,  598  ;  moods  of, 
in  principal  clauses,  599-6O4  :  declara- 
tive, 6OO,  6O3  ;  interrogative,  599,  601  ; 
imperative,  599,  6O3,  6O4  ;  in  subordi- 
nate clauses,  605-6O7,  613  ;  tenses  in, 
of  infinitive,  6O8,  633-636  ;  of  subjunc- 
tive, 6O8  ;  persons  in,  6O9-613  ;  condi- 
tional sentences  in,  613-619. 

Indirect  Double  Questions,  594. 

Indirect  Object,  336,  665. 

Indirect  Questions,  59O-595  ;  unlike  rela- 
tive clauses,  591  ;  particles  introducing, 
590,  593-595. 

Infinitive,  157,  185,  191  ;  uses  of,  633- 
636 :  as  neuter  noun,  633  ;  as  subject, 
633;  as  predicate  noun  or  appositive, 
634  ;  as  object,  635  ;  without  subject  ac- 
cusative. 636  ;  with,  638,  639  ;  purpose 
expressed  by,  63O.1  ;  with  adjectives, 
630.2  ;  in  exclamations,  63O.3  ;  nomina- 
tive with:  as  subject  (historical),  631.1; 
as  predicate  noun  or  adjective,  631.2  ; 
in  passive  sentences,  631.3  ;  tenses  of, 
6O8  :  time  depending  on  leading  verb, 
632  ;  time  expressed,  by  present,  633; 
by  perfect,  634 ;  by  future,  635,  636. 

Inflection,  defined,  42  ;  table  of,  46.  See 
Declension,  Conjugation,  Comparison. 

Inseparable  Prepositions  (or  Adverbs),  246. 


Intensive  Pronouns,  146  ;  uses  of,  428. 

Interjections,  8,  41,  263. 

Interrogative,  particles,  24O.5,  261,  59O, 

593-595  ;  pronouns,  148,  154  ;  order  of, 

668. 
Interrogative  Clauses  (Indirect  Questions), 

59O-595  ;  unlike  relative,  591  ;  particles 

introducing,     59O,     593-595  ;     indirect 

double  questions,  594. 
Interrogative  Sentence,  379.3,  38O-383  ; 

in  indirect  discourse,  599,  6O1. 
Intransitive  Verbs,  158  ;  accusative  with, 

309-313  ;  dative  with,  33O. 
Inverse  Attraction,  303.3. 
Irregular,  nouns,  85,  86,  95  ;  comparison, 

of   adjectives,    135 ;    of   adverbs,    239  ; 

verbs,  321-229. 

Jussive  Subjunctive,  482,  492. 

Labials,  18,  21  ;  stems  ending  in,  76. 

Leading :  see  Principal. 

Limit  of  Motion,  accusative  of,  325. 

Liquids,  23  ;  liquid  stems,  79. 

Lists  of  Verbs,  198-33O. 

Literary  Present,  446.3. 

Litotes,  740. 

Locative,  case,  55  ;  in  -ae,  -is,  61,  69  ;  in 

-T,  69,  87,  95  ;  in  -e,  -ibus,  87  ;  in  -e, 

98  ;  ablative,  40O-407. 

Manner,  adverbs  of,  34O.1  ;  ablative  of, 
390,  391. 

Material,  genitive  of,  348. 

Means,  ablative  of,  386-389. 

Measure,  genitive  of,  354. 

Metaphor,  74O. 

Metonomy,  74O. 

Metre,  defined,  7O1  ;  dactylic  hexameter, 
713-715  ;  dactylic  pentameter,  716,  717. 

Mixed  Stems,  nouns  of,  84. 

Monosyllables,  quantity  of,  34. 

Months,  names  of,  718. 

Moods,  156  ;  defined,  159,  476  ;  signs  of, 
167;  in  principal  clauses,  indicative,  477- 
479;  subjunctive,48O-494:  volitive,  481- 
483,  491:  jussive,  483,493  ;  concessive, 
483;  optative,  48O,  484,  491;  condi- 
tional (potential),  48O,  485-49O,  491; 
with  negatives,  491,  493;  in  rhetorical 
questions,  493  ;  imperative,  495,  496  ; 
in  subordinate  clauses,  497;  of  conditional 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS 


259 


sentence,  553,  554  ;  in  principal  clauses 
of  indirect  discourse,  599-6O4  ;  in  subor- 
dinate, 605-607. 

Motion,  accusative  of  limit  of,  335  ;  dative 
of  direction  of,  339. 

Mutes,  18,  19;  table  of,  31;  mute  stems, 
76-78. 

Names,  Roman,  737 ;  abbreviations  of, 
738. 

Nasals,  33  ;  nasal  stems,  8O. 

Negative,  subjunctive  sentences,  491,  493  ; 
and  opposing  conditions,  559-563  ; 
clauses  with  quiii,  573-579 :  in  prin- 
cipal clauses,  stating  commands  and  ques- 
tions, 574.1;  after  clause  of  negative 
meaning,  574.11-579 ;  adverbs,  659- 
663. 

No  and  Yes,  in  answers,  383. 

Nominative,  55,  389, 3O5  ;  in  exclamations, 
307;  with  infinitive,  as  subject  (histori- 
cal), 631.1;  as  predicate  noun  or  adjec- 
tive, 631.3  ;  in  passive  sentences,  631.3. 

Nouns,  defined,  6,  41,  47-1O6 :  kinds  of, 
47,  48  ;  genders  of,  49-53  ;  numbers  of, 
53  ;  cases  of,  54,  55  ;  declensions  of,  56- 
106  :  first,  59-63  ;  second,  64-73  ;  third. 
73-93  ;  fourth,  93-96  ;  fifth,  97,  98  ; 
table  of  endings,  99  ;  indeclinable,  51.3, 
10O  ;  defective,  1O1-1O3  ;  variable,  1O4 
106  ;  verbal,  157;  derivative,  364-366  ; 
compound,  374  ;  appositive,  391,  393, 
397.3  ;  predicate,  39O,  397.3,  634, 
631.3  ;  collective,  304.3  ;  adjectives  as, 
4O9-411;  infinitive  as  neuter,  633; 
subordinate  clauses  as  (substantive),  498, 
499  ;  order  of,  666. 

Number,  53,  156.  163,  168  ;  adverbs  of, 
340. 7;  genitive  of,  354.  See  Agreement. 

Numeral  Adjectives,  13O ;  table  of,  133  ; 
declension  of,  131,  133,  134  ;  symbols 
of,  135  ;  uses  of,  413. 

Numeral  Adverbs,  13O,  133. 

Object,  direct,  158,  3O8  ;  affected,   3O8  ; 

effected,  3O8  ;    indirect,   336  ;    infinitive 

as,  635  ;  order  of,  665. 
Objective    Genitive,    351,    353,    364-371, 

430 
Opposing   and   Negative  Conditions,  559- 

563. 


Optative  Subjunctive,  480,  484,  491. 

Oratio  obliqua,  598. 

Oratio  recta,  597. 

Ordinals,  13O,  133,  134,  413. 

Origin,  genitive  of,  348. 

Oxymoron,  740. 

Participial  Adjectives,  116,  131,  167.3. 

Participial  Stem  (System),  166,  171,  173, 
196,  197,  3O4.1,  636. 

Participle,  131,  157,  185,  188;  declen- 
sion of,  116,  167.3  ;  agreement  of,  393, 
395.3,  397.4,  398.3  ;  uses  of,  645-653  : 
time  of  tenses  of,  646,  647  ;  as  verb, 
648;  as  adjective,  649-651;  with  force 
of  clause,  651. 

Particles,  9,  334 ;  interrogative,  34O.5, 
361,  590,  593-595.  See  Adverbs,  Con- 
junctions, Prepositions,  Interjections. 

Partitive,  apposition,  393.3  ;  genitive,  355- 
358,  36O,  430. 

Passive  Sentence,  nominative  used  with  in- 
finitive in,  631.3. 

Passive  Voice,  158,  443  ;  accusative  with 
verbs  in,  315,  317,  318;  dative  with, 
331,  339  ;  ablative  of  agent  with,  379  ; 
with  reflexive  meaning,  443.3. 

Patronymics,  364.4. 

Pentameter,  716,  717. 

Perfect  Stem  (System),  166,  171,  173, 
187,  189,  194,  195,  197. 

Perfect  Tense,  156,  16O,  161,  167,  169, 
198;  in  -vl,  199,  3O3,  3O9,  313,  314, 
316;  in  -ul,  3OO,  304,  31O,  313,  317; 
in  -T,  301,  3O6,  311,  313,  314,  319  ;  in 
-si,  305,  3O8,  313,  318  ;  historical,  16O  ; 
epistolary,  456 ;  of  infinitive,  time  ex- 
pressed by,  634. 

Periphrastic  Conjugation,  188  ;  gerundive 
used  in,  644.1;  in  subjunctive  clause, 
473. 

Person,  137-139,  141,  156,  163,  168.  See 
Agreement. 

Person  or  Thing  Concerned,  dative  of,  334- 
34O. 

Personal  Pronouns,  137, 153  ;  uses  of,  419, 
430. 

Persons,  163  ;  in  indirect  discourse,  6O9- 
613. 

Place,  ablative  of,  4O1-4O5  ;  accusative  of, 
335  ;  adverbs  of,  34O.3. 

Pleonasm,  74O. 


260 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


Pluperfect  Tense,  156, 160, 161, 167;  epis- 
tolary, 458. 

Position,  syllables  long  by,  35,  68O. 

Possession,  genitive  of,  353,  36O. 

Possessive  Pronouns,  139,  153  ;  genitive  in 
apposition  with,  434  ;  order  of,  668.  • 

Possessor,  dative  of,  340. 

Potential  Subjunctive,  485. 

Predicate,  377,  378,  384,  385  ;  noun,  39O, 
397.3  ;  infinitive,  634  ;  adjective,  395  ; 
dative,  341-345 ;  genitive,  359-363  ; 
nominative  with  infinitive  as,  631.3  ;  ge- 
rundive as,  643.3,  644  ;  participle,  651; 
order  of,  664.1. 

Prepositions,  defined,  8,  41,  341;  with  ace. 
only,  343  ;  with  abl.  only,  343  ;  with  ace. 
or  abl.,  345  ;  inseparable,  346  ;  ace.  with 
and  without,  311,  330,  334,  335  ;  abl. 
with  and  without,  319,  374-4O7;  com- 
pounds with,  374.3,  375.3,  376.5  ;  order 
of,  67O. 

Present  Perfect  Tense,  16O,  161,  453, 
460. 

Present  Stem  (System),  166,  171,  173, 
183,  187,  197,  3O4.1,  313. 

Present  Tense,  156,  16O,  161,  167;  his- 
torical, 447.1,  47O ;  literary,  446.3  ;  of 
infinitive,  time  expressed  by,  633. 

Price,  genitive  of  indefinite,  361-363  ;  ab- 
lative of,  395. 

Principal,  tenses,  161;  parts  of  verbs,  171; 
clauses,  387:  tenses  of  subjunctive  in, 
461;  moods  in,  indicative,  4  7  7-4  79  ;  sub- 
junctive, 480-494;  imperative.  495,  496; 
clauses  with  quiii,  stating  commands  and 
questions,  574.1. 

Prolepsis,  74O. 

Pronominal  Adjectives,  151;  uses  of,  436- 
439. 

Pronouns,  defined,  7,  41;  kinds,  136;  de- 
clension of,  137-148:  personal,  137; 
reflexive,  138  ;  possessive,  139  ;  demon- 
strative, 141-145  ;  intensive,  146  ;  rela- 
tive, 147;  interrogative,  148  ;  indefinite, 
149,  ISO ;  tables  of,  153,  154  ;  correla- 
tives, 153,  154  ;  agreement  of,  393  ;  uses 
of :  personal,  419,  43O  ;  reflexive,  431- 
433  ;  possessive,  434  ;  reciprocal,  sub- 
stitutes for,  435  ;  demonstrative,  436, 
437  ;  intensive,  438  ;  relative,  399-3O4, 
439;  indefinite,  43O-435 ;  order  of, 
668. 


Pronunciation  of  Latin,  Roman,  36-39 ; 
English,  739-739. 

Prosody,  678-717:  rhythm,  678-68O ; 
quantity  of  syllables,  683-695  ;  verse  and 
metre,  696-717:  foot,  697;  thesis,  arsis, 
ictus,  700;  scanning,  7O3-711;  dactylic 
hexameter,  713-715;  dactylic  pentame- 
ter, 716,  717. 

Protasis,  551. 

Proviso,  conditional  clauses  of,  563,  565. 

Purpose,  dative  of,  343,  344  ;  clauses  of, 
5O6-518  :  substantive,  51O-516  ;  adver- 
bial, 517,  518  ;  relative  clause  of ,  586.1  ; 
expressed,  by  infinitive,  63O.1;  by  gerun- 
dive, 644.3  ;  by  participle,  651;  by  su- 
pine in  -uiii,  654. 

Quality,  genitive  of,  354,  360  ;  ablative  of, 
394. 

Quantity,  of  vowels,  33  ;  of  diphthongs, 
33.1;  of  syllables,  33-37;  of  monosylla- 
bles, 34  ;  of  final  syllables,  683-695. 

Questions,  direct,  38O  ;  direct  double,  381, 
594  ;  indirect,  59O-595  ;  indirect  double, 
594 ;  particles  introducing,  34O.5,  38O, 
381;  rhetorical,  383,  493;  in  indirect 
discourse,  6O3. 

Reciprocal  Pronouns,  substitutes  for,  435. 

Reference,  dative  of,  335-338,  345. 

Reflexive  Pronouns,  138,  153  ;  suns,  140, 
433.3;  uses  of,  431-433. 

Regular  Verbs,  17O,  174-184. 

Relative,  pronouns,  147,  154  ;  uses  of, 
399-3O4,  439  ;  in  apposition  with  whole 
sentence,  3O4.3  ;  clauses,  58O-589 : 
words  introducing,  58O-584  ;  as  adjec- 
tive, 585  ;  conjunctional,  586  :  of  pur- 
pose (result),  time,  cause,  condition,  com- 
parison, concession,  586  ;  of  characteris- 
tic. 586.3,  587-589  ;  order  of,  668. 

Result,  clauses  of,  519-538 :  substantive, 
531-536  ;  adverbial,  537,  538  ;  relative, 
586.3.N. 

Rhetorical  Order,  673-676. 

Rhetorical  Questions,  383,  493  ;  in  indirect 
discourse,  6O3. 

Rhythm,  678-68O. 

Scanning,  7O3-711. 

Semi-Deponent  Verbs,  187,  3O7,  647. 

Semivowels,  34. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS 


261 


Sentence-Questions,  280.3. 

Sentences,  5,  377,  378  ;  declarative,  379.1; 
in  indirect  discourse,  60O,  6O3  ;  inter- 
rogative, 379.3,  38O-383  ;  in  indirect  dis- 
course, 599,  601  ;  imperative,  379.3  ;  in 
indirect  discourse,  599,  6O3,  6O4  ;  ex- 
clamatory, 379.4 ;  simple,  384,  385  ; 
compound,  384-387:  coordinate,  386; 
subordinate,  387;  nominative  used  with 
infinitive  in  passive,  631.3. 

Separation,  dative  with  verbs  of,  337;  abla- 
tive of,  374-377. 

Sequence  of  Tenses,  463 -4  71:  defined,  463; 
general  rule  for,  463 ;  table  showing, 
463  ;  apparent  variations  in,  466-471. 

Simile,  74O. 

Simple  Sentence,  384,  385. 

Sounds,  5;  of  vowels,  36,  37;  of  diph- 
thongs, 38  ;  of  consonants,  39. 

Source,  ablative  of,  378. 

Space,  accusative  of,  334  ;  genitive  of,  354. 

Specification,  accusative  of,  331  ;  ablative 
of,  396,  655. 

Spirants,  33  ;  spirant  stems,  81. 

Spondaic,  713. 

Spondee,  698,  7OO. 

Standpoint,  dative  of  supposed,  338. 

Stems,  defined,  54  ;  of  nouns :  classified, 
57  ;  in  -a,  59  ;  in  -o,  64  ;  in  consonant, 
75-81  ;  in  -i,  83  ;  in  -u,  93  ;  in  -e,  97  ; 
mixed,  84  ;  table  of,  99  ;  of  adjectives,  In 
comparison,  13O,  133  ;  of  verbs,  present, 
perfect,  participial,  165,  166, 171;  shown 
in  synopsis,  173  ;  changes,  193-197. 

Subject,  377,  378,  384,  385  ;  in  nomina- 
tive, 389 ;  noun  or  substitute,  389  ;  im- 
plied in  verb-ending,  389  ;  agreement  of 
predicate  noun  with,  390  ;  of  appositive 
(apposition),  391,  393  ;  accusative  of  in- 
finitive, 333  ;  infinitive  as,  623  ;  accusa- 
tive, infinitive  without,  623,  636 ;  with, 
633,  638,  639  ;  nominative  with  infini- 
tive as  (historical),  631.1  ;  order  of,  664. 

Subjective  Genitive,  35O. 

Subjunctive  Mood,  159  ;  tenses  of,  16O. 
461-473.  6O8 ;  in  principal  clauses,  48O- 
494 :  volitive,  481-483,  491  :  jussive. 

483,  493  ;    concessive,    483  ;    optative, 

484,  491  ;    conditional,  485-49O,  491 ; 
in  subordinate  clauses,  497-595  ;   in  in- 
direct discourse,  605,  613-619  ;    by  at- 
traction, 63O. 

18 


Subordinate  (dependent)  Clauses,  defined, 
387  ;  tenses  in,  463  ;  moods  in,  497  ; 
uses  of  :  as  nouns  (substantive),  498,  499  ; 
as  adjectives  (attributive),  500  ;  as  ad- 
verbs (adverbial),  5O1 ;  forms  of,  conjunc- 
tional, 5O3-579  :  transition  to,  5O4,  5O5  ; 
purpose,  5O6-518  ;  result,  519-538 ; 
time,  539-54O  ;  cause,  541-549  ;  condi- 
tion, 55O-565  ;  comparison,  566-568  ; 
concession,  569-573  ;  negative  with  quin, 
573-579  ;  relative,  58O-589  ;  interroga- 
tive (indirect  questions),  59O-595  ;  in  in- 
direct discourse,  6O5-63O. 

Subordinate  Conjunctions,  354-361. 

Substantive  Clause,  498,  499  ;  of  purpose, 
51O-516  ;  of  result,  531-536  ;  relative 
quod-clause,  549 ;  interrogative,  590- 
595. 

Suffixes,  363.1. 

Supine,  157,  185  ;  uses  of,  in  -um  to  ex- 
press purpose,  654  ;  in  -u,  655. 

Syllables,  defined,  30 ;  division  of,  31  ; 
quantity  of,  33-37;  683-695:  long  by 
nature,  33,  34  ;  long  by  position,  35  ; 
short,  36;  common,  37;  names  of,  38; 
accent  on,  39,  4O  ;  monosyllables,  34. 

Synapheia,  7O5. 

Syncope,  708. 

Synecdoche,  740. 

Synopsis,  of  regular  verb,  173  ;  of  uses  of 
moods,  596. 

Syntax :  see  Sentences. 

Systole,  709. 

Tables  :  of  mutes,  31  ;  of  inflection,  46  ;  of 
cases,  55  ;  of  declensions,  57,  99  ;  of  pro- 
nouns, 153,  154 ;  of  tense  and  mood 
signs,  167 ;  of  personal  endings,  168, 
169  ;  of  regular  verb,  173  ;  of  perfect 
forms,  198  ;  of  tenses  of  indicative,  46O  ; 
showing  sequence  of  tenses,  463  ;  of  uses 
of  moods,  596. 

Temporal :  see  Time. 

Tendency,  dative  of,  343. 

Tenses,  156,  16O,  161,  443-475  ;  for  un- 
completed and  completed  action,  16O; 
for  past,  present,  and  future  time,  161  ; 
principal,  161;  historical,  161;  signs  of, 
167;  of  indicative,  16O,  445-46O  ;  table, 
46O  ;  of  subjunctive,  16O,  461-473,  6O8 ; 
of  imperative,  16O,  473-475  ;  of  infini- 
tive, 6O8,  633-636 :  time  depending  on 


262 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


leading  verb,  633  ;  time  expressed,  by 
present,  633  ;  by  perfect,  634  ;  by  fu- 
ture, 635,  636  ;  of  participles,  645-647. 

Thesis,  7OO. 

Time,  adverbs  of,  24O.3  ;  accusative  of, 
324  ;  genitive  of,  354  ;  ablative  of,  4O6, 
407;  clauses  of,  introduced  by  post- 
quam,  ubi,  etc.,  53O-532  ;  dum,  donee, 
quoad,  533  ;  aiitequam,  postquam, 
534  ;  cum  temporal,  535  ;  cum  histor- 
ical, 536  ;  cum  inverse,  537  ;  cum  coin- 
cident, 538  ;  cum  relative,  539  ;  relative 
clause  of,  586.3  ;  of  tenses,  of  infinitive, 
632-636  ;  of  participle,  646,  647;  parti- 
ciple denoting,  651. 

Tmesis,  711. 

Transition,  to  conjunctional  clause,  504, 
505. 

Transitive  Verbs,  158,  3O8 ;  accusative 
with,  308  ;  dative  with,  327,  328. 

Trochee,  698. 

Value,  genitive  of,  361-363. 

Variable  Nouns,  1O4-1O6 ;  in  meaning, 
1O4  ;  in  gender  (heterogeneous),  1O5  ;  in 
declension  (heteroclites),  106. 

Verbal  Adjectives,  157:  gerundive,  638, 
64O,  642-644  ;  participle,  645-652. 

Verbal  Nouns,  157;  infinitive,  as  neuter 
noun,  622  ;  as  subject,  623  ;  as  predicate 
noun  or  appositive,  624  ;  as  object,  625  ; 
without  subject  accusative,  626  ;  with, 
628,  629  ;  purpose  expressed  by,  63O.1; 
with  adjectives,  630.2  ;  in  exclamations, 
630.3  ;  nominative  with,  as  subject  (his- 
torical), 631.1;  as  predicate,  631.2;  in 
passive  sentences,  631.2  ;  tenses  of,  632- 
636  ;  gerund,  157,  185,  192,  637;  uses 
of,  639-641;  supine,  157,  185  ;  uses  of, 
653-655 :  in  -um  to  express  purpose, 
654  ;  in  -u,  655. 

Verbs,  defined,  6,  41,  155  ;  voices,  156, 
158;  moods,  156,  159;  tenses,  156, 
16O,  161 ;  numbers,  162  ;  persons,  163  ; 
stems,  165,  166,  171;  systems,  171, 
172;  changes  in,  166,  171,  172,  193- 
197,  see  also  list  of  verbs,  198-22O ; 
tense  and  mood  signs,  167;  personal  end- 
ings, 168,  169;  principal  parts,  171; 
synopsis  of,  172  ;  verb  lists,  198-22O  ; 
conjugation  of,  17O-232:  sum,  173; 
first,  174,  175  ;  second,  176,  177;  third, 


178,  179;  fourth,  180,  181;  in  -io, 
182-184  ;  deponent,  185,  186,  2O2,  2O7, 
215,  220,  647;  semi-deponent,  187,  207, 
647;  periphrastic,  188,  644.1;  peculiar 
forms,  189-192  ;  irregular,  221-229 ; 
defective,  23O-232  ;  impersonal,  233, 
accusative  with,  314  ;  dative  with,  233.2, 
331  ;  genitive  with,  368,  369  ;  inceptive 
(inchoative),  273.3  ;  compound,  197,  2O1, 
211,  213.2,  321,  226,  227,  229,  276; 
dative  with,  332  ;  derivative,  214.2,  271- 
273  ;  necessary  in  sentence.  155,  278  ; 
omitted,  278,  191  ;  agreement  of,  296- 
298;  with  accusative,  308-32O ;  with 
dative,  326-332,  339;  with  genitive, 
359-371  ;  with  ablative,  375-377,  379, 
385.  387;  uses  of,  finite,  44O-620 :  voices, 
442  ;  tenses,  443-475 :  of  indicative, 
445-460  ;  of  subjunctive,  461-472  ;  of 
imperative,  473-475 ;  moods,  in  prin- 
cipal clauses:  indicative,  477-479;  sub- 
junctive, 480-494:  volitive,  481-483, 
491  ;  optative,  484,  491 ;  conditional 
(potential),  485-49O,  491;  in  rhetorical 
questions,  493 ;  with  indefinite  second 
person,  494  ;  imperative,  495,  496  ;  verbs 
in  subordinate  clauses,  497-620  ;  verbal 
nouns  and  adjectives,  621-655 :  infini- 
tive, 622-636;  gerund,  637,  639-641; 
gerundive,  638,  64O,  642-644  ;  participle, 
645-652  ;  supine,  653-655. 

Verse,  696,  7O3. 

Vocative,  55  ;  in  -I,  7O  ;  uses  of,  305,  307. 

Voices,  156,  158,  168,  442. 

Volitive  Subjunctive,  48O-483,  491,  492. 

Vowels,  16;  sounds  of,  26,  27;  quantity 
of,  33. 

Whole,  genitive  of  (partitive),  355-358, 
36O,  420. 

Wish,  conditional  clauses  of,  563,  564. 

Word-Questions,  280.1. 

Words  (Etymology),  41-276  :  formation  of, 
263-276;  agreement  of,  288.1;  govern- 
ment of,  288.2  :  dependence  of,  288.3  ; 
introduction  of,  288.4  ;  connection  of, 
288.5  ;  order  of,  grammatical,  664-672  ; 
rhetorical,  673-676  ;  fixed,  677. 

Yes  and  No,  in  answers,  283. 
Zeugma,  740. 


TWENTIETH   CENTURY   TEXT-BOOKS. 


The  closing  years  of  the  nineteenth  century  witnessed  a  remarkable  awak- 
ening of  interest  in  American  educational  problems.  There  has  been  elaborate 
discussion  in  every  part  of  our  land  on  the  co-ordination  of  studies,  the  bal- 
ancing of  contending  elements  in  school  programmes,  the  professional  training 
of  teachers,  the  proper  age  of  pupils  at  different  stages  of  study,  the  elimina- 
tion of  pedantic  and  lifeless  methods  of  teaching,  the  improvement  of  text- 
books, uniformity  of  college-entrance  requirements,  and  other  questions  of  like 
character. 

In  order  to  meet  the  new  demands  of  the  country  along  these  higher 
planes  of  educational  work,  the  Twentieth  Century  Text-Books  have  been 
prepared. 

At  every  step  in  the  planning  of  the  series  care  has  been  taken  to  secure 
the  best  educational  advice,  in  order  that  the  books  may  really  meet  the  in- 
creasing demand  from  academies,  high  schools,  and  colleges  for  text-books 
that  shall  be  pedagogically  suitable  for  teachers  and  pupils,  sound  in  modern 
scholarship,  and  adequate  for  college  preparation. 

The  editors  and  the  respective  authors  have  been  chosen  with  reference  to 
their  qualifications  for  the  special  work  assigned  to  them.  These  qualifications 
are :  First,  that  the  author  should  have  a  thorough  knowledge  of  his  subject  in 
its  latest  developments,  especially  in  the  light  of  recent  educational  discussions ; 
second,  that  he  should  be  able  to  determine  the  relative  importance  of  the 
subjects  to  be  treated  in  a  text-book ;  third,  that  he  should  know  how  to  pre- 
sent properly  his  topics  to  the  ordinary  student. 

The  general  editorial  supervision  of  the  series  is  in  the  hands  of  Dr.  A.  F. 
Nightingale,  Superintendent  of  High  Schools,  Chicago,  with  whom  is  asso- 
ciated an  advisory  committee  composed  of  an  expert  in  each  department  of 
study. 

The  offer  of  a  complete  series  of  text-books  for  these  higher  grades  of 
schools,  issued  under  auspices  so  favorable,  is  an  event  worthy  of  the  twentieth 
century,  and  a  good  omen  for  the  educational  welfare  of  the  future. 

One  hundred  volumes  are  comprised  in  the  series.  A  list  of  those  now 
ready,  and  of  others  in  preparation,  will  be  sent  upon  request. 

D.     APPLETON      AND      COMPANY,      NEW     YORK. 


LITERATURES  OF  THE  WORLD. 
Edited  by  EDMUND  GOSSE, 

Hon.  M.  A.  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 

A  succession  of  attractive  volumes  dealing  with  the  history  of  litera- 
ture in  each  country.  Each  volume  will  contain  about  three  hundred 
and  fifty  I2mo  pages,  and  will  treat  an  entire  literature,  giving  a  uni- 
form impression  of  its  development,  history,  and  character,  and  of  its 
relation  to  previous  and  to  contemporary  work. 

Each,  J2mo,  cloth,  $J.50. 

NOW    READY. 

Chinese  Literature.  By  HERBERT  A.  GILES,  A.  M.,  LL.  D.  (Aberd.), 
Professor  of  Chinese  in  the  University  of  Cambridge. 

Sanskrit  Literature.  By  A.  A.  MACDONELL.  M.A.,  Deputy  Boden 
Professor  of  Sanskrit  at  the  University  of  Oxford. 

Russian  Literature.     By  K.  WALISZEWSKI. 

Bohemian  Literature.  By  FRANCIS,  Count  LUTZOW,  author  of 
"  Bohemia :  An  Historical  Sketch." 

Japanese  Literature.  By  W.  G.  ASTON,  C.  M.  G.,  M.  A.,  late  Act- 
ing Secretary  at  the  British  Legation,  Tokio. 

Spanish  Literature.  By  J.  FITZMAURICE-KELLY,  Member  of  the 
Spanish  Academy. 

Italian  Literature.  By  RICHARD  GARNETT,  C.  B.,  LL.  D.,  Keeper 
of  Printed  Books  in  the  British  Museum. 

Ancient  Greek  Literature.  By  GILBERT  MURRAY,  M.  A.,  Professor 
of  Greek  in  the  University  of  Glasgow. 

French  Literature.  By  EDWARD  DOWDEN,  D.  C.  L.,  LL.  D.,  Pro- 
fessor of  English  Literature  at  the  University  of  Dublin. 

Modern  English  Literature.     By  the  EDITOR. 

IN    PREPARATION. 

AMERICAN  LITERATURE.     By  Prof.  W.  P.  TRENT,  of  Columbia  University. 

GERMAN    LITERATURE. 

HUNGARIAN  LITERATURE.  By  Dr.  ZOLTAN  BE5THY,  Professor  of  Hun- 
garian Literature  at  the  University  of  Budapest. 

LATIN  LITERATURE.  By  Dr.  ARTHUR  WOOLGAR  VERKALL,  Fellow  and 
Senior  Tutor  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 

MODERN  SCANDINAVIAN  LITERATURE.  By  Dr.  GEORG  BRANDRS, 
of  Copenhagen. 

D.     APPLETON     AND     COMPANY,     NEW     YORK. 


LITERATURES  OF  THE  WORLD. 

Edited  by 

EDMUND  GOSSE,  Hon.  M.  A.  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
J2mo.     Cloth,  $J.50  each. 

A    HISTORY    OF 
BOHEMIAN     LITERATURE. 

BY  FRANCIS,  COUNT  LUTZOW, 

Author  of  "  Bohemia  :   An  Historical  Sketch." 


"  This  book  deals  with  an  interesting  subject  in  an  abk 
and  impartial  manner,  and  it  is  written  in  excellent  English. ' ' 
— London  Morning  Post. 

"  Count  Lutzow's  wide  and  deep  knowledge  and  experi- 
ence in  matters  Bohemian  have  particularly  fitted  him  for  the 
preparation  of  this  work,  and  he  has  succeeded  in  producing 
a  highly  interesting  as  well  as  instructive  exposition  of  a 
subject  altogether  unknown  in  western  Europe,  and  hardly 
more  familiar  in  America." — Boston  Beacon. 

"  Students  of  literature  will  value  this  work,  because  it 
offers  some  insight  into  the  character,  the  extent,  and  the 
quality  of  Bohemian  literature  extant,  and  the  general  public 
will  find  most  interest  in  the  discussion  of  the  life  and  death 
of  Hus  and  the  principal  events  of  his  career,  the  life  and 
work  of  Komensky,  the  sketch  of  Dobrovsky,  and  the  long 
account  of  the  enthusiastic  work  of  the  four  patriots  to  whom 
the  revival  of  Bohemian  literature  in  the  present  century  is 
due — Jungmann,  Kollar,  Safarik,  and  Palacky." — Boston 
Herald. 

"  Count  Lutzow's  volume  is  of  special  value  and  in- 
terest."— Philadelphia  Public  Ledger. 

D.     APPLETON      AND     COMPANY,     NEW    YORK 


LITERATURES  OF  THE  WORLD. 

Edited  by 

EDMUND  GOSSE,  Hon.  M.  A.  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 
J2mo.    Cloth,  $J.50  each. 

ITALIAN    LITERATURE. 

BY  RICHARD  GARNETT,  C.  B.,  LL.  D., 

Formerly  Keeper  of  Printed  Books  in  the  British  Museum. 

"  Finished  and  graceful,  at  once  delicate  and  strong,  and 
never  relapses  into  prosiness." — The  Dial. 

"Dr.  Garnett  is  lucid  in  arrangement,  agreeable  and  cor- 
rect, and  often  powerful  and  felicitous  in  style.  He  has 
done  a  real  service  to  both  English  and  Italian  literatures." 
— Literature. 

"The  manual  is  a  worthy  companion  of  its  predecessors, 
and  will  be  found  useful  by  each  one  who  desires  to  refresh 
or  enlarge  his  acquaintance  with  the  magnificent  achievements 
of  Italian  genius." — Public  Ledger,  Philadelphia. 

"A  most  interesting  book,  written  rrom  a  full  knowledge 
of  the  subject,  but  without  pedantry.  The  style  is  simple, 
graceful,  and  readable  ;  the  erudition  is  easily  discovered  by 
those  who  seek  for  it,  but  it  is  not  ostentatiously  displayed. 
Scholars  will  appreciate  it  at  its  worth  ;  the  general  reader 
will  be  grateful  for  the  charity  of  the  text,  and  for  the  labor 
that  has  made  his  path  one  of  pleasure  only." — Saturday 
Evening  Gazette. 

D.    APPLETON     AND     COMPANY,     NEW    YORK. 


LITERATURES  OF  THE  WORLD. 

Edited  by 

EDMUND  GOSSE,  Hon.  M.  A.  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
J2mo.    Cloth,  $J.50  each. 

SPANISH   LITERATURE. 

BY  JAMES   FITZMAURICE-KELLY, 

Member  of  the  Spanish  Academy. 


"  Mr.  Kelly  has  written  a  book  that  must  be  read  and 
pondered,  for  within  its  limits  it  has  no  rival  as  '  A  History 
of  Spanish  Literature.'  " — The  Mail  and  Express. 

( (  The  work  before  us  is  one  which  no  student  can  hence- 
forth neglect,  ...  if  the  student  would  keep  his  knowl- 
edge of  Spanish  up  to  date.  .  .  .  We  close  with  a  re- 
newed expression  of  admiration  for  this  excellent  manual  ; 
the  style  is  marked  and  full  of  piquancy,  the  phrases  dwell 
in  the  memory." — The  Spectator. 

"A  handbook  that  has  long  been  needed  for  the  use  of 
the  general  reader,  and  it  admirably  supplies  the  want. 
Great  skill  is  shown  in  the  selection  of  the  important  facts ; 
the  criticisms,  though  necessarily  brief,  are  authoritative  and 
to  the  point,  and  the  history  is  gracefully  told  in  sound 
literary  style." — Saturday  Evening  Gazette. 

"  For  the  first  time  a  survey  of  Spanish  literature  is  pre- 
sented to  English  readers  by  a  writer  of  ample  knowledge 
and  keen  discrimination.  Mr.  Kelly's  work  rises  far  be- 
yond the  level  of  the  text-books.  So  good  a  critic  does  not 
merely  comment  on  literature;  he  makes  it  himself." — 
New  York  Bookman. 

.    APPLETON     AND     COMPANY,     NEW    YORK. 


LITERATURES  OF  THE  WORLD. 

Edited  by 

EDMUND  GOSSE,  Hon.  M.  A*  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 
J2mo.    Cloth,  $1.50  each. 

JAPANESE  LITERATURE 

BY  W.  G.  ASTON,  C.  M.  G.,  M.  A., 

late  Acting  Secretary  at  the 
British  Legation  at  Tokio. 


"A  volume  of  unique  erudition,  wide  research,  clear  dis- 
crimination, and  excellent  design.  Mr.  Aston  has  wrought 
a  memorable  service  not  only  to  those  interested  in  Japan 
and  Japanese  studies,  but  to  the  world  of  letters  at  large." 

Sir  Edwin  Arnold,  in  Literature. 

"Mr.  Aston  has  written  the  first  complete  narrative  from 
early  times  to  the  present  of  the  history,  the  rituals,  the  po- 
etry, the  drama,  and  the  personal  outpourings  of  thoughts  and 
feelings  which  constitute  the  body  of  the  literature  of  Japan." 

Baltimore  Sun. 

"Mr.  Aston  has  unquestionably  enabled  the  European 
reader  for  the  first  time  to  enjoy  a  comprehensive  survey  of 
the  vast  and  ancient  field  of  Japanese  literature,  of  which  we 
have  had  hitherto  only  furtive  and  partial  glimpses." 

London  Times. 

"His  work  is  a  model  of  what  a  manual  of  this  character 
should  be.  While  it  constitutes  an  admirable  guide-book  to 
any  one  who  cares  to  go  deeper  into  this  special  subject,  it 
is  sufficiently  comprehensive  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the 
average  reader  or  the  general  student  of  literature." 

Brooklyn  Daily  Eagle. 

D.    APPLETON     AND     COMPANY,     NEW    YORK. 


THE  GREAT  PEOPLES  SERIES 

Edited  by  DR.  YORK  POWELL, 

Regius  Professor  of  Modern  History  in  the  University  of  Oxford. 
Each  J2mo.     Cloth,  $1.50  net?  postage,  J4  cents  additional. 


The  aim  of  this  series  is  to  give  in  well-printed,  clearly  written,  and  read- 
able volumes  a  view  of  the  process  by  which  the  leading  peoples  of  the  world 
have  become  great  and  earned  their  title  to  greatness,  to  describe  the  share 
each  has  contributed  to  the  common  stock  of  civilization.  It  is  not  so  much 
a  set  of  political  or  military  or  even  social  histories,  as  a  sequence  of  readable 
studies  on  the  tendencies  and  potencies  of  the  chief  peoples  of  the  world, 
that  this  series  will  strive  to  present. 

NOW  READY: 

THE  SPANISH  PEOPLE. 

By  Dr.  MARTIN  A.  S.  HUME. 

"  The  reader  quickly  perceives  that  the  riches  promised  by  Dr.  Powell 
are  amply  found,  at  least  in  this  first  volume.  The  history  is  written  with  a 
new  object  and  from  a  new  standpoint ;  there  is  not  a  dull  page  in  it. 
Mr.  Hume  writes  with  all  the  advantages  of  the  modern  historical  specialist, 
and  his  picture  of  the  development  of  the  Spaniard  is  an  important  history 
of  a  people  whose  picturesque  career  is  one  of  unfailing  interest." — Boston 
Daily  Advertiser. 

THE  FRENCH  PEOPLE. 

By  ARTHUR  HASSALL,  M.  A.,  Student  of  Christ  Church, 
Oxford ;  Author  of  "  The  Balance  of  Power,"  etc. 

In  accordance  with  the  general  plan  of  the  series,  this  important  work 
presents  the  evolution  of  a  people.  The  method  is  modern,  and  although 
the  sources,  development,  and  transitions  of  a  great  race  are  fully  indicated 
in  a  comparatively  small  compass,  the  author's  aims  and  results  differ  widely 
from  the  set  record  of  political,  dynastic,  and  military  facts  which  are  chron- 
icled in  the  dry  language  of  the  usual  hand-book.  The  part  that  France  has 
played  in  the  world's  history  has  been  frequently  so  picturesque  and  dra- 
matic, as  well  as  great,  that  a  vital  analysis  of  her  history  like  this  possesses 
a  profound  interest.  The  author  is  one  of  the  ablest  of  the  rising  English 
historians  and  a  lecturer  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford. 

IN  PREPARATION: 

THE  RUSSIAN  PEOPLE. 

By  J.  FITZMAURICE-KELLY. 

D.     APPLETON    AND     COMPANY,     NEW     YORK. 


TWENTIETH  CENTURY  TEXT  BOOKS. 

A  History  of  the  American  Nation. 

By  ANDREW     C.     MCLAUGHLIN,     Professor     of 

American  History  in  the  University  of  Michi- 
gan. With  many  Maps  and  Illustrations.  I2mo. 
Cloth,  $1.40. 

"  One  of  the  most  attractive  and  complete  one- volume  his- 
tories  of  America  that  has  yet  appeared." — Boston  Beacon. 

<(  Complete  enough  to  find  a  place  in  the  library  as  well  as  in 
the  school." — Denver  Republican. 

"This  excellent  work,  although  intended  for  school  use;  is 
equally  good  for  general  use  at  home." — Boston  Transcript. 

"It  should  find  a  place  in  all  historic  libraries." — Toledo 
Blade. 

"Clearness  is  not  sacrificed  to  brevity,  and  an  adequate 
knowledge  of  political  causes  and  effects  may  be  gained  from  this 
concise  history." — New  York  Christian  Advocate. 

"A  remarkably  good  beginning  for  the  new  Twentieth  Cen- 
tury Series  of  text-books.  .  .  .  The  illustrative  feature,  and 
especially  the  maps,  have  received  the  most  careful  attention, 
and  a  minute  examination  shows  them  to  be  accurate,  truthful, 
and  illustrative." — Philadelphia  Press. 

"The  work  is  up  to  date,  and  in  accord  with  the  best  modern 
methods.  It  lays  a  foundation  upon  which  a  superstructure  of 
historical  study  of  any  extent  may  be  safely  built." — Pitt, burg 
Times. 

"A  book  of  rare  excellence  and  practical  usefulness." — Salt 
Lake  Tribune. 

"The  volume  is  eminently  worthy  of  a  place  in  a  series  des- 
dned  for  the  readers  of  the  coming  century.  It  is  highly 
creditable  to  the  author." — Chicago  Evening  Post. 

D.  APPLETON  AND   COMPANY,  NEW   YORK. 


LITERATURES  OF  THE  WORLD. 

Edited  by  EDMUND  GOSSE, 

Hon.  M.  A.  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 
Each,  J2mo,  cloth,  $J.50. 

Chinese   Literature. 

By  HERBERT  A.  GILES,  M.  A.,  LL.  D.  (Aberd.), 
Professor  of  Chinese  in  the  University  of 
Cambridge. 

"  Few  recent  histories  of  literature  are  more  pregnant  with 
new  and  interesting  material  than  this.  There  is  nothing  like  it 
in  any  library,  and  one  may  say  with  assurance  that  there  is  not 
a  dull  page  in  it." — Boston  Transcript. 

"Information  and  instruction  share  its  pages  with  enlivening 
wit  and  wisdom,  and  it  can  be  confidently  relied  upon  for  many 
hours  of  pure  delight."  —  Chicago  Evening  Post. 

"Any  private,  public,  or  school  library  that  fails  to  place  it 
on  its  shelves  would  be  guilty  of  almost  culpable  indifference 
to  the  most  opportune,  the  most  instructive,  the  most  fascinating 
of  Asiatic  masterpieces  that  has  ever  been  garnered  into  a  single 
volume." — Brooklyn  Daily  Eagle. 

"The  work  is  done  with  sympathy,  with  insight,  and  with 
that  openness  of  mind  which  is  so  essential  in  dealing  with  the 
life  and  thought  of  the  East.  The  quality  of  the  poetry  will 
surprise  those  who  have  thought  of  the  Chinese  as  dealing  in  pru- 
dential maxims  and  in  philosophy  of  the  moral  life  rather  than  in 
the  stuff  of  the  imagination." — The  Outlook. 

D.     APPLETON    AND     COMPANY,     NEW    YORK. 


By  Prof.  G.  MASPERO. 


The  greatest  and  most  scholarly  work  on  the  history  of 
the  Ancient  World. 

The  Passing  of  the  Empires 

(Egypt,  Assyria,  Babylonia,  Persia,  and  Medea), 
850  B.  C.  to  330  B.  C. 

By  Prof.  G.  MASPERO,  author  of  "  The  Dawn  of  Civiliza- 
tion "  and  "The  Struggle  of  the  Nations."  Edited  by 
the  Rev.  Prof.  A.  H.  Sayce.  Translated  by  M.  L. 
McClure.  With  Maps  and  numerous  Illustrations,  in- 
cluding three  Colored  Plates.  Uniform  edition.  4to. 
Cloth,  $7.50. 

"  With  this  magnificent  volume  Professor  Maspero  completes  his 
great  task,  which  has  extended  over  nearly  seven  years,  of  writing  a 
history  of  the  Oriental  world  from  the  earliest  times  down  to  the  death 
of  Darius.  The  work  has  been  great,  as  the  progress  of  Oriental  le- 
search  has  been  so  rapid,  and  discoveries  so  numerous,  that  to  attain 
any  finality  seemed  impossible  ;  but  the  author  has  neglected  nothing, 
and  indeed  the  footnotes  to  these  volumes  show  an  almost  herculean 
labor  of  research  among  authorities  in  every  land  and  every  tongue, 
and  add  immensely  to  the  value  of  the  work." — Chronicle  (London). 

"  For  learning  and  industry,  Professor  Maspero's  epoch-making 
series  on  the  '  History  of  the  Ancient  Peoples  of  the  Classic  East ' 
deserves  to  be  called  monumental.  .  .  .  The  work  is  a  remarkably  full 
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THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
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and 

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